Part 7 - Primatology & Fossils

PRIMATOLOGY

Syllabus of Primatology

Important : Comparative Anatomy

Scope of Study
Primates & Scholars
1. Primatology → Living & Extinct && Field Work & Lab Work
2. Jane Goodall → Chimpanzee in Tanzania & Kenya
3. Dian Fossey’s → Gorillas in Rwanda & Burundi + Sign Language to Koko Gorilla
Jane Goodall
1. Temp Leader - Required Only in times of Conflicts and Disasters
2. Most Aged & Permanence is Referred as Alpha Male
3. Constantly Shifting Groups in a Cyclic Way to Avoid Attacks and Mitigation of Disasters

Primates
- Classification
  
  Prosimians - Primitive to Simians - Lemurs Lorises Tarsiers
  
  Simians - NWM + OWM + Apes - Gibbons, Orangutans, Gorilla, Chimpanzee, Humans
- Definition
  1. Unguiculate - One of More Nails of Claws
  2. Clavicle - Collar Bone
  3. Calcarine Fissure - Rote Learn Don't Try to Understand
- Characteristics
  
  True Opposability of Thumb or Great Toe - Thumb and Baaki Finger Opposite Direction Main
- Dentition
- Behaviour(7)
  1. Dominance
  2. Grooming
  3. Communication
  4. Reproduction
  5. Aggression
  6. Protoculture
  7. Locomotion
Types of Primates
- Tertiary & Quaternary Fossil Primate
  - Introduction
  - Dryopithecus
  - Ramapithecus
  - Sivapithecus
- Living Major Primate
  - Gorilla
    1. Prognathic Mandible
    2. No Flatness of Skull
    3. Arms Longer and Legs Shorter - Opposite to that of adult humans
    4. Protruding / Extended Abdomen
    5. Prominent Crust
    6. Have Unique Fingerprints and Toe Prints like Humans
    7. Have Nails instead of Claw
  - Chimpanzee
    
    Promiscuos - Multiple Sexual Partners
  - Orangutan
  - Gibbon
  - Bonobo

Comparative Anatomy of Man & Apes

Coccygeal is Fused

In Apes Big Toe in less opposable except Chimpanzee

In Humans the Big Toe is More Opposable than Apes but Less than Chimpanzee

Human v/s Other Apes - Human More Opposable

Human v/s Chimpanzee - Chimp More Opposable

Opposable Scale in Increasing Order

Apes < Humans < Chimpanzee
Skeletal Changes Due to Erect Posture and Its Implications
- Physiological Changes
  - Changes in Pelvis
  - Changes in Hindlimbs & Re Shaping of Foot
    
    Linea Aspera is a Rough Surface in the form of Ridge in Bones of Hind Limbs for Easy Attachment of Muscles
  - Changes in Spinal Cord, Sacrum & Vertebral Column
    
    4 Different Cord Developed - C T L S
- Biological Significance
- Cultural Significance & Development of Language
- Consequences of Bipedalism
Factors Contributing to Human Evolution
- Biological Factors in Human Evolution
- Cultural Factors in Human Evolution

FOSSILS

Syllabus
How do we Study Human Evolution (Three Step Process)
Where and When Did Human Evolve ?
The Hominid / Human Evolution
- Introduction
- General Trend in Hominid Evolution
- Common Ancestors to Apes & Humans
- Pliocene / Pre Pleistocene / Pre Homo
  - Australopithecus
    - Initial Known Types of Australopithecus
      
      Earliest Australopithecus
      1. Australopithecus Afarensis - 3.5 MYA
      Parallel to Each Other
      1. Australopithecus Boisei
      2. Australopithecus Africanus
      3. Australopithecus Robustus
    - Sub Species of Australopithecus
      - Introduction
        
        After the Initial Discoveries of 4 Types of Australopithecus, Other Types of Australopithecus were found
      - Australopithecus - Gracile (Thin/Slander)
        
        A Afarensis
        
        A Africanus
        
        A Anamensis
        
        A Ramidus
      - Paranthropus - Robust (Thick/Stocky)
        
        A Boisei
        
        A Robustus
        
        A Aethiopicus
      - Difference Between Australopithecus and Paranthropus
        
        Mastoid Process
        
        It is a Prominence in a Temporal Bone situated behind the Ear, where neck muscles are attached
    - Debate on Phylogenetic Status of Australopithecus
      - 2 Branch Theory by Timothy White & Donald Johanson
      - 3 Branch Theory by Alan Walker
    - Introduction
    - Discovery & Tim Period
    - Important Discovery
    - Location for Spread of Australopithecus
      1. Tong in South Africa
      2. Kromdraai in South Africa
      3. Swartkrans in South Africa
      4. Makapansgat in South Africa
      5. Turkana in Kenya
      6. Lothagam in Kenya
      7. Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania
      8. Laetoli in Tanzania
      9. Hadar in Ethiopia
    - Features of Australopithecus
      - Biological Features
        
        Cranial Features
        
        Post Cranial Features
      - Cultural Features
        
        Tools
        
        Earlier it was considered that Australopithecus didn't use any tools but later studies found some Butchered Gazelle Tools associated with A Garhi
        
        Society
- Pleistocene / Homo
  
  Types of Homo
  - Homo Habilis - 1.0 MYA
    - Introduction to Homo Habilis
      1. Homo - Human Habilis - Skill Full Man
    - Difference Between A Africanus & H Habilis
    - Physical Features of Homo Habilis
    - Cultural Features
    - Phylogenetic Debate around Homo Habilis
      1. Phylogenetic Means - Evolutionary History
      2. Similarities with Australopithecus
      3. Emergence of Rudolfensis
        
        Second Slide Here
      💡 John Robinson considered Homo Habilis as a Mixture of Australopithecus & Homo Erectus
    - Tool Modes → Mode 1 to Mode 5 (useful in archaeological too)
  - Homo Erectus - 2 to 0.25 MYA
    - Introduction & Broad Changes
    - Discovery & Time Period
    - Difference Between Homo Erectus & Homo Sapiens
    - Physical Features of Homo Erectus
    - Feature of Sub Species 1 - Java Man
    - Feature of Sub Species 2 - Peking Man
    - Feature of Sub Species 3 - Narmada Man
      
      The most posterior point in the skull of narmada man, is not matching with typical homo erectus and it is close to modern man i.e Maximum Cranial Length is More
    - Phylogenetic Debate / Status
  - Home Sapiens Neanderthleaensis - 1.3 L to 30 K YA
    - Called by Different Names but is Same
      1. Homo Sapiens Neanderthalensis
      2. Homo Neanderthalensis
      3. Neanderthals
      4. Neanderthal Man
    - Introduction
    - Time Period
      1. 1 Lac to 30 K Years Ago → Progressive Neanderthals
      2. 2 Lac to 1 Lac Years Ago → Classic Neanderthals → here they emerged, Not Ended
    - Location
    - Physical Features of Neanderthalensis
    - Classic & Progressive Neanderthals
      - Similarities & Differences Between Classic and Progressive Neanderthals ( 5 * Imp )
      - Post Cranial Morphology of Classic and Progressive Neanderthals
    - Extinction of Neanderthals - Theories
    - SUMMARY → Debate - Neanderthals Being a Separate Species or a Part of Homo Sapiens
      - Summary
        
        Pre Neanderthal Hypothesis
        
        Pre Sapiens Hypothesis by Boul & Keith
        
        Multi Regional Theory
        
        Ark Model
        
        Scientific Evidences Based on
        
        Mitochondrial DNA
        
        Archaeological Findings
      - Conclusion of Debate
        
        The Continuos Debate Related to Position of Neanderthals vis a vis modern humans is more of diverging nature of these two hominin’s
        
        Later Arguments & Acceptance, by Various Evolutionary Anthropologists considered these two as close relatives which existed at some matching time period as well as in a sequential timeline
        
        So even if Neanderthals are NOT the closest relative of Modern Man, this hominin is definitely contributed to evolutionary studies of Homo Sapien Sapiens
  - Rhodesian Man - 4 L to 1.25 L Years Ago
    - Introduction
      1. Its a Transition Specie
      2. Connecting Link Between Pre Modern Man & Modern Man
      3. Rhodesia is old name of Zimbabwe Region of Africa
      4. Fossil Found by Zwigglee at Broken Hill in Northern Rhodesia
      5. He Found, Lower Jaw, Femur Parts, Tibia, Sacrum Portion of Two Pelvis, Some Fragments of one of Another Individuals
    - Physical Features
    - Phylogenetic Status
      - Summary
        
        Woodward
        
        Von Bonian
        
        Boule
        
        Hootan
        
        Some Studies
        
        Recent Findings - Kabwe Skills
  - Homo Sapiens - 5 Lac Years Ago
    
    To Reach Homo Sapiens Sapiens, we have to cross Homo Sapiens of Cro Magnon, Grimaldi, Chancelade
    - Introduction
      
      To Study - Cro Magnon, Grimaldi, Chancelade
    - Cro Magnon (France)
      - Introduction
      - Physical Features
      - Cultural Features
    - Difference Between Grimaldi & Cro Magnon
    - Grimaldi (Italy)
      - Introduction
      - Physical Features
      - Cultural Features
    - Chancelade (France)
      - Introduction
        
        Some Say that Cro Magnon Might have transformed into Chancelade
      - Physical Features
      - Cultural Features
  - Homo Sapiens Sapiens - The Actual “Modern Man”

THE ULTIMATE SUMMARY

Primates
- Prosimians
  - Lemuri Forms
    1. Lemurs
    2. Lorises
  - Tarsi Form
    1. Tarsier
- Simians / Anthropoids
  - New World Anthropoid
    
    New World - North and South America
    - New World Monkeys
  - Old World Anthropoid
    - Old World Monkey
    - Hominoidea - Apes & Humans
      - Common Ancestors to Anthropoids in (Tertiary and Quaternary Era)
        
        Introduction
        
        Dryopithecus
        
        Ramapithecus
        
        Sivapithecus
      - Apes
        
        Gorilla
        
        Prognathic Mandible
        
        No Flatness of Skull
        
        Arms Longer and Legs Shorter - Opposite to that of adult humans
        
        Protruding / Extended Abdomen
        
        Prominent Crust
        
        Have Unique Fingerprints and Toe Prints like Humans
        
        Have Nails instead of Claw
        
        Chimpanzee
        
        Orangutan
        
        Gibbon
        
        Bonobo
      - Humans
        
        Australopithecus - Pliocene / Pre Pleistocene / Pre Homo
        
        Initial Known Types of Australopithecus
        
        Earliest Australopithecus
        
        Australopithecus Afarensis - 3.5 MYA
        
        Parallel to Each Other
        
        Australopithecus Boisei
        
        Australopithecus Africanus
        
        Australopithecus Robustus
        
        Sub Species of Australopithecus
        
        Introduction
        
        After the Initial Discoveries of 4 Types of Australopithecus, Other Types of Australopithecus were found
        
        Australopithecus - Gracile (Thin/Slander)
        
        A Afarensis
        
        A Africanus
        
        A Anamensis
        
        A Ramidus
        
        Paranthropus - Robust (Thick/Stocky)
        
        A Boisei
        
        A Robustus
        
        A Aethiopicus
        
        Difference Between Australopithecus and Paranthropus
        
        Mastoid Process
        
        It is a Prominence in a Temporal Bone situated behind the Ear, where neck muscles are attached
        
        Debate on Phylogenetic Status of Australopithecus
        
        2 Branch Theory by Timothy White & Donald Johanson
        
        3 Branch Theory by Alan Walker
        
        Introduction
        
        Discovery & Tim Period
        
        Important Discovery
        
        Location for Spread of Australopithecus
        
        Tong in South Africa
        
        Kromdraai in South Africa
        
        Swartkrans in South Africa
        
        Makapansgat in South Africa
        
        Turkana in Kenya
        
        Lothagam in Kenya
        
        Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania
        
        Laetoli in Tanzania
        
        Hadar in Ethiopia
        
        Features of Australopithecus
        
        Biological Features
        
        Cranial Features
        
        Post Cranial Features
        
        Cultural Features
        
        Tools
        
        Earlier it was considered that Australopithecus didn't use any tools but later studies found some Butchered Gazelle Tools associated with A Garhi
        
        Society
        
        Homo Habilis - Pleistocene / Homo
        
        Homo Erectus
        
        Homo Neanderthalensis
        
        Rhodesian
        
        Homo Sapiens
Timeline
- Age of Dinosaurs
- Age of Mammals
  - Cenozoic Era
    - Tertiary Period
      - Paleocene Epoch
      - Eocene Epoch
      - Oligocene Epoch
      - Miocene Epoch
      - Pliocene Epoch
    - Quaternary Period
      - Pleistocene Epoch
      - Holocene Epoch
Hierarchy of Time
1. Time
2. Age
3. Era
4. Period
5. Epoch

Important Terms
- Cranial
  
  Sutures & Joints
  - Sutures & Joints
  - Fontanelle
    
    Space in Bregma and Lambda is Fontanelle
    
    Babies cause unko brain enlargement ke liye space chahiye rehta hai toh unke sutures fuse nai hote hai. So we can actually feel a space here in bregma and lambdoid jisko fontanelle bolte hai
    
    bregma fontanelle is anterior and Lambda fontanelle is posterior
  - Bregma & Vertex - Conincidence & Non Co Incidence
  - Vertex
    
    Highest Position in the Skull
  Brain & Upper Skull
  - Posterior Lobe of Brain
    
    Posterior - Back
    
    Occipital lobe
    
    It forms the most posterior portion of the brain and is found behind both the parietal and temporal lobes. The occipital lobe lies over the tentorium cerebelli, while its medial surface faces the falx cerebri
  - Parietal Tuberosities
    
    Tuberosity: (countable, anatomy) A rounded protuberance, at the end of a bone, to which a muscle or tendon is attached
  - Sagittal Crest (Crest on Top of Skull)
  - Saggital Keel (Keel on Top of Skull)
  - Zygomatic Arch
  - Suprainiac Fossa
  - Foramen Magnum
    
    the hole in the base of the skull through which the spinal cord passes
  - Frontal Bone
    
    The frontal bone in an adult is an unpaired bone that is a part of the boney structure that forms the anterior and superior portions of the skull. At the beginning of life, it is a bone separated by a temporary suture called the frontal suture
  - Cranium
    
    (KRAY-nee-um) The bones that form the head. The cranium is made up of cranial bones (bones that surround and protect the brain) and facial bones (bones that form the eye sockets, nose, cheeks, jaw, and other parts of the face)
  - Mastoid Process
  - Postorbital Constriction
    
    In physical anthropology, post-orbital constriction is the narrowing of the cranium (skull) just behind the eye sockets (the orbits, hence the name) found in most non-human primates and early hominins
  - Platycephaly
    
    n. a condition in which the crown of the head is abnormally flat
  - Cepahlies - Normal, Plagio, Brachycepahly
  - Occipital Protuberence
  - Supra Orbital Ridge & Notch
  Jaw
  - Pre Maxila
  - Maxilla & Mandible & Prognathism
  - Maxilla - Upper Jaw
  - Mandible - Lower Jaw
  - Jaw Movements
  Eye
  - Orbit
    
    Eye Socket
  - Brow Ridge and Bony Ridge of Skull
    1. Brow Area of Skull Brow Ridge
    2. Bony Ridge Encirclement of Eye Socket
      
      Eye Socket is called - Orbit
    3. Difference Between Brow Ridge & Bony Ridge of Skull
      
      And bony ridge baaki sab ke liye. Like ligament attachment, muscle attachment hogya. Yaa waha se koi nerve pass hori hai yaa koi major artery. So basically uske kaaran bone mei jo ridge banta hai
  - Orbital Convergence of Eyes - Horizontal Elongated Orbit
  Nose & Mouth
  - Sub Nasal Area
    
    Nose and Below that - Inside Area Also
  - Muzzle
    
    Nose + Mouth
  Teeth Features
  - Diastema
    
    Gap Between Teeth
  - Enamel is More
    
    Strong Teeth
  - Y5 Pattern of Hominids
  - Dental Arcade
    
    the curve of the row of teeth in each jaw. called also arcade.
- Animal Features
  - Cheek Pad of Orangutan - Disticnt Feature
    
    Also Called as Cheek Pouches
  - Gibbon Face Ring
  - Tail Tuft of Bonobo
  - Altruism in Bonobos
    
    Bonobos will happily share their food with a stranger, and even give up their own meal — but only if the stranger offers them social interaction, evolutionary anthropologists at Duke University report in the journal PLoS One
- Post Cranial
  - Unguiculate
    
    having one or more nails or claws.
  - Claviculate
    
    possessing a clavicle (collar bone)
  - Hindlimb
    
    Means Legs
    
    A hindlimb or back limb is one of the paired articulated appendages (limbs) attached on the caudal (posterior) end of a terrestrial tetrapod vertebrate's torso. With reference to quadrupeds, the term hindleg or back leg is often used instead
  - Pentadactyl
    
    (of a vertebrate limb) having five toes or fingers, or derived from such a form, as characteristic of all tetrapods.
  - Eutherian / Placental
    
    of or relating to a major division (Eutheria) of mammals comprising the placental mammals
  - Vertebral Column
- Fields
  - Physiology
    
    the scientific study of how living things function
  - Morphology
    
    morphology, in biology, the study of the size, shape, and structure of animals, plants, and microorganisms and of the relationships of their constituent parts
  - Behavioral Ecology
    
    Study of Animals in their Natural Habitat
  - Primate Ethology
    
    Primatologists study primate evolution, behaviour and biology Ethologists study the behaviour of organisms based on a comparative and evolutionary approach
  - Primatology
    
    Primatology is the study of the behavior, biology, evolution, and taxonomy of nonhuman primates Primatologists are united by a common interest in study subjects, but not necessarily by uniformity in academic training.
- Terms
  - Types of Movements
    1. Clinging
    2. Leaping → Movement of Long Jump from one Branch to Another
    3. Quadrupedal
      1. Arboreal Quadrupedalism - On Stems and Plants
      2. Terrestrial Quadrupedalism - Ground Walking & Knuckle Walking
    4. Bipedal
      
      On Two Legs
    5. Brachiation
      1. One Hand and then Other Hand
      2. Types
        
        True
        
        Modified
  - Pseudo or True Opposability of Thumb
  - Olfactory
    
    he olfactory system is at the roof of the nasal cavity at the cribriform plate → a perforated portion of the ethmoid bone separating the frontal lobe of the cerebrum from the nasal cavity. Odorant molecules within the nasal passages first encounter receptors on the primary cilia of olfactory sensory neurons.
  - Proto Culture
    
    Learned Behaviour Passed from Generation to Generation
  - Dentition
    
    he arrangement or condition of the teeth in a particular species or individual.
  - Gestation Period
    
    It is measured in weeks, from the first day of the woman's last menstrual cycle to the current date. A normal pregnancy can range from 38 to 42 weeks
    
    Infants born before 37 weeks are considered premature. Infants born after 42 weeks are considered postmature
  - Sexual Dimorphism
    
    Visible Distinctive Differences in Males and Females
  - Prognathous & Orthognathous
    
    PROGNATHOUS having a projecting lower jaw or chin
    
    ORTHOGNATHOUS (especially of a person) having a jaw which does not project forwards and a facial angle approaching a right angle.
- Animals
  - Tree Shrew
  - Indri
    
    Largest Surviving Lemur in Madagascar
- Positions
  - Procumbent Positions
    
    Woh Primates jinka back seedha nahin hota hai
    
    Anatomical Positions Detailed.pdf
Important Names
1. Jane Goodall - Studied Chimpanzee
2. Dian Fossey - Studied Gorillas
3. George J Mivart - Defined Primates
Important Location
1. Gombe Stream National Park, Tanzania & Kenya
  1. Study Place of Jane Goodall
2. Karisoke Research Station, Rwanda & Burundi

DOUBT

Doubt in Terms
- Nuchal Bone
- Torus Angularis
- Occipital Torus