Part 6 - Archaeological Anthropology

Extra Concepts

• Sediments

  Gravels

  1. Boulders Means Stone Pieces of Size more than 250 MM
  2. Cobble - 64 to 256 MM
  3. Pebble - 2 to 64 MM
  4. Granules - 0 to 2 MM

  Other

  1. Sand - Very Coarse, Coarse, Medium, Fine, Very Fine
  2. Silt - Coarse, Medium, Fine, Very Fine
  3. Mud - Clay

• Sequences

  

Introduction to Archaeological Anthropology

1. It is an Offshoot of the Broad Field or Discipline of Archaeology which mainly deals with study of primitive and extinct cultures
2. It is mainly targeting to Societies and Cultures with Some Written Records → Evidence for Existing Nearly 5000 Years Ago
3. But Humans have existed way earlier than this 5000. Some Earliest Fossils of Humans are more than 30 Lac Years Old ( More than 3 Million Years Old)
4. Hence, Anthropology Aims to study these human too, as Humans are central to anthropology in all space and time
5. So, Taking help from Archaeology, Geology, Fine Arts, Classical History ; Archaeological Anthropology was started
6. Archaeological Anthropologists work actively with paleontologists, Geologists, Historians, Chemists etc
7. In Maximum Parts of the World, Including Australia, Melanesia, Polynesia, Africa & ecen the New World ( North and South America) → Here Knowledge of Writing is Very Recent but existence of humans is NOT Recent i.e Old
8. Hence, to Study them we need archaeological anthropology to trace the emergence, development and spread of social customs, norms and behaviors

Important Terms of this Discipline

• Chronometry

  Any Method which gives data about age, sequence or co occurrence fossils

  Examples:

  1. C 14 Dating Method

     Not Practical Approach beyond 50,000 Years Old

     William Libby Discovered this Method

  2. Stratigraphy

  3. Palynology

  4. Seriation

  5. Thermoluminescence Dating Methods

  6. K A Dating Methods ( Potassium Argon Dating Methods etc )

  In these Chronometric Techniques, An Approx of 3 Million Year Old Fossil can be Studied

• Ethnology - SCA

  It is used for Socio Cultural Anthropology in America

• Ethnography - SCA

  Detailed Study of a Particular Culture, Society in Maximum Possible Dimensions

• Ethnoarchaeology - AA

  

  Ethno Archaeology Deals with the Use of Analogies or Parallels drawn from the Study of Present or Recent Simple Small Scale Societies ( Like Hunting Gathering & Pastorals) ; for reconstructing and interpreting the archaeological cultures

  In Simple Words it is use of Ethnography in Archaeological Reconstruction.

  In Recent Years Archaeologists have felt the need to undertake field works by themselves amongst the present day simple small scale societies and study them from archaeological point of view

  Two Important Case Studies Are

  1. Bushmen of Africa - Studied by John Yellem
  2. Nunemitu of Eskimos of Alaska - Studied by Lewis Binford

• Two Types of Ethnographic Analogies

  1. General Comparative

     It is basically comparative study of different cultures without any geographical limits

  2. Direct Historical

     It Involves some unbroken links between past and present of a same geographical area in specific region (with geographical restrictions)

     Direct Historical Analogies involve unbroken links between past and present in specific regions

     For Example Hunting Gathering Society of Chenchus are Ethnographically Studied to get an Idea about Past Cultures of Deccan Region of India

Unit 1.8 : Dating Methods

Principles of Prehistoric Archaeology (Chronology) Relative & Absolute Dating Methods

• Introduction to Dating Methods

  Tools, Techniques and Scientific Methods used in the field of evolutionary investigations to identify the age of the fossils or artifacts of Geological Deposits. And also the Evolutionary Sequence of Occurrence for different Fossils

  Dating Methods helps researchers, tp reach upto better assessments and scientific conclusion based on evidence

• There are Two Types of Dating Methods

  1. Relative Dating

     Gives an Idea about the age of an object or fossil in context of or in relation to some another one i.e with the help of this method archaeologists can arrange various fossils according to their age

     This method does not give calendar or exact age of Fossils

     Examples Are :

     1. Stratigraphy
     2. Seriation
     3. F(Fluorine) Analysis
     4. Palynology ( Pollen Analysis)
     5. Typological Dating

  2. Absolute Dating / Also Termed as Chronometric Dating

     To Identify the Actual or Calendrical Age of Certain Fossils. Here a particular object or fossil or artefact is studied in isolation as an Independent Existence

     Examples Are :

     1. Carbon 14 Dating Methods
     2. Thermo Luminescence etc

• Examples of Absolute and Relative Dating

  

• Difference Between Absolute and Relative Dating

  

  Absolute Dating is 100 times costlier than Relative Dating

  Absolute Dating is Better for Igneous or Metamorphic Rocks due to Absence of Layering

Relative Dating Methods

• 1. Stratigraphy

  

  1. Stratification means Division
  2. It Emerged from Geology. Hence sometimes it is also called as a Sub Discipline of Geology
  3. It Simply Means to Study Something Layer by Layer
  4. Hence, the Origin, Physical Features as well as special relationships of stratified rock structure
  5. Bottom Layer is the Oldest One and the Top Most Layer is the Youngest One

  

  1. Three Principles are used in Stratigraphy

     1. Principles of Superposition

        It means that if one series of rock lies above the another one, then the upper ones are newer or younger than the lower series

     2. Principle of Original Horizontality

        It says that layers of sediments are originally deposited horizontally under action of gravity. Later due to outside forces these deposits got deposited or tilted ( like plate tectonics)

     3. Principle of Lateral Continuity

        It states that layers of sediments also expands laterally in all the directions i.e there is a laterally continuous deposition

        as a result of this the rocks which are otherwise similar, but are now separated by a land form like valley can be assumed to be originally continuos

• 2. Fluorine Dating
  3. It is mainly used to find age of fossilised bones, teeth buried underground for a long period
  4. Fluorine Formation may vary from region to region & time to time ;
  5. Hence, it is not a very reliable method when fossils of different geographical regions are compared

  

• 3. Palynology

  

  1. It is mainly a term used for the study of Pollen Grains, but gradually it started incorporating Spores of Plants and Other Organic Material
  2. When this is Studied in relation to fossils or rock structure
  3. Now It has application in Forensics too
  4. Palynomorphs outer covering is made up of Chitin which is Tough, Almost Indestructible and is present in multiple layers
  5. Now a Method is used to arrange these layers in Palynomorphs as older or newer
  6. The Difference between these is found by means of relative aberration in the Older Layer
  7. Significance
     1. Chemicals, Microscope, No Laser Beam is Required → Hence it is Cheap and is Less Time Taking

  

  

  The Last Point of Study of Tree Population with time is a Potential Application

• 4. Seriation

  • Introduction

    

    

  • Example of Frequency Seriation → Ceramic Seriation

    Tehuacan Valley of Mexico

    

  • Example of Contextual Seriation → Tomb Stone Seriation

    In Contextual Seriation, it is understood that what kind of stone tool or technique was used at what point of time, either alone or with some other method

    

• 5. Nitrogen Dating

  Nitrogen Content Decreases with time in Human Body Fluorine Content Increases with time in Human Body

  More the Nitrogen, Fossil is New Less the Nitrogen, Fossil is Old

  

• 6. Patination

  It is based on Stone, Any Stone which is Based on Ground or is buried will undergo chemical changes and due to these changes, there will be some coating of milky chemicals i.e Patina

  More the Deposition of Chemical i.e Patina → More the Patination → More the Age

  

Absolute Dating Methods

• 1. Radiocarbon Dating

  • Introduction

    1. It is best suited for Organic Derivatives coming from Living World but can also be used for Non Living Objects
    2. It is one of the Most Commonly used Method of Absolute Dating
    3. Two Prominent Names Associated with its Discovery Are Arnold & Libby

    

  • Half Life Period

    Due to Radioactive Decay, C-14 content of an Organism Decreases

    

  • Application & Process - Method 1 → Normal Method

    

  • Application & Process - Method 2 → Nature Method

    

  • Limitation of C 14 Dating

    1. For Method 1 and Method 2
    2. Not Very Accurate as → It is applicable for only 60,000 to 70,000 Years of Age
    3. Generally the Age of Fossil Counted by Carbon Dating is Erroneous by +_ 300 Years because there is Not a Uniform Disintegration of Carbon 14

  • New Application & Process - Method 3 → Accelerator Mass Spectrometry (AMS)

    AMS Does not Give Age but tells the Precise Amount of C 14 Left in the Organism

    Range is even to small amount of 100 Micrograms to 300 Milligrams

    Its an added Technique of C 14 Dating

    

• 2. Potassium Argon Dating

  • Introduction

    

    1. We Study the Age of Non Living Matter, based on that we approximate the age of living matter
    2. Volcanic Eruption Released Potassium 40 which is stuck in Lava Erupted
    3. When this Potassium 40, converts into Argon 40 by various means like (Eruption or Cooling) it converts into Argon 40
    4. Mainly used for Rock Structure ranging from 10,000 to 2 Billion Years

  • Application of Potassium Argon Dating

    1. Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania is a prominent location of upper paleolithic age was based on K Ar Dating, studied by Louis and Mary Leakey

       Here they Found Skull Specimens of Australopithecus Boisei

    2. Omo Valley - Southern Ethiopia → Lower Pleistocene Deposits have been seen

  • Limitation

    Not Applicable to Organic Fossils, Bones or Skulls Directly

    

• 3. Luminescence Dating

  • Introduction

    1. Luminescence can be of different types Optical, IR, Thermo (TL)
    2. It is based on Light Absorption. At Some point of time, the Rocks, Minerals or Plant and Animals were exposed to sunlight. They Absorb a Part of it

    

  • Process

    

  • Examples

    In Recent Days Thermoluminescence can be used in the world of art & craft to verify the originality of the product and to find out the forged copies

    

  • Limitation

• 4. Dendrochronology *

  • Introduction

    

    1. Dendrochronology is Tree Ring Dating
    2. These Rings are Based on Precipitation
    3. Thicker the Layer more the Precipitation and Vice Versa
    4. Outermost Layer is the Most Recent Layer
    5. Innermost Layer is the Most Old One
    6. One Ring in Tree is completion of One Cycle of Season

  • Technique and Process

    

    Make This Diagram in Exam 👇

    

  • Application

    

    1. It is mainly used for New or Recent Samples ; especially those which are too recent for Radiocarbon Dating
    2. It can help in understanding the Climate Change around the Date of Artefacts
    3. Study of Artefacts like of Danish Artefacts

  • Limitations

    

    1. But Places where we don't have Seasonal Changes like in Equatorial Region. Here Dendrochronology Fails.
    2. There is no evidence of Study by means of Dendrochronology older than 13,000 - 14,000
    3. Apart from Wooden Tools and Artefacts ; Nothing can be Studied
    4. Samples which have been Reused cannot be identified with accuracy via this method

Unit 1.8 & 1.1 : Pre History

Cultural Evolution - Broad Outline of Prehistoric Culture - India and World

• Meaning of Prehistoric

  It SImply Means Before Writing of History

• Important Note for Terminology

• These Ages are Different for Different Parts of the World

• Imp Names in Indian Archaeology

  1. Robert Bruce Forte
  2. H D Sankalia
  3. H De Terra
  4. Paterson
  5. Mishra

• Paleolithic Culture Old Stone Age 30 Lac Years to 10/12 K Years

  • Introduction

    1. Classification of Paleolithic Culture was Given by Lartet in 1870
    2. The Onset of Paleolithic Period has Traditionally Coincided with the first evidence of tool construction and is used by Humans at about 2.58 Million Year Ago

  • Stone tools used in Paleolithic Culture are

    Stone Tool Culture of Paleolithic Culture used Multiple Techniques for its Creation

    1. Core Stone Tool
       1. Core of the Material is used as a basic raw material for finished tool
       2. Ex
          1. Hand Axes
          2. Choppers
          3. Cleavers
    2. Flake Stone Tool
       1. Ex
          1. Scrapers
          2. Pointers
          3. Borers
    3. Blade Stone Tool
       1. Ex
          1. Sharpened at Both the Edges

  It can be divided into three Ages

  • Lower Paleolithic - 30 Lac to 3 Lac

    • World

    • Features of Tools

      1. Acheulean Tools - Acheulean Sites means places where evidences of Acheulean Stone Tools were found in the World → Use of those Stone Tools were reflection of Acheulean Culture & Tradition

    • Features of Location

    • Features of Culture

      1. Two Types of Division in Study of Lower Paleolithic
         1. Peninsular - Forested & Rocks - Central & Southern India
         2. Extra Peninsular - Himalayan & IG Plain & Brahma Plain - Glacial & Pluvial Deposit
      2. Some Evidences of Use of Fire by Homo Erectus
      3. Homo Erectus were very Efficient hunters (well explained by F Clark Howell)
      4. EA Hobble studied some evidences of Cannibalism in some parts of China
      5. New Water Resources & Dense Vegetation
      6. Less Evidences of Caves - Max Stay in Open Area
      7. Acheulean Sites / Tradition -> Manufac + use of ST by Acheulean Technology Acheulean Industry
      8. All Over India except Kerala, SPO TN & Sindh
         1. Son/Sohan Valley/Culture, Punjab - Max Part in Present Day Pak
         2. Madarasian Culture
         3. Narmada Culture

      ---

      1. First Pal Tool discovered by Robert Bruce Foot in 1863 at Pallavaram, Near Madras This Study Laid the Foundation of Pre History Studies in India

      2. Env & Climate were NOT uniform. Ex Kotwar Plateau (Pak) & Kashmir Valley. They were under the Influence of Great Ice Age

      Area b/w Hoshangabd & Narsinghpur Dist in MP Western Ghat Part of Mah Mysore Coorg Region of Karnataka

      5. Sankhlia in 1964 Studied Narmada Culture

    • India

      • It is prominently studied under two aspects

        1. Peninsular → Central + Southern

           These are Mainly Found in Forested Area & Rocky Structure

        2. Extra Peninsular → Himalayan and IG Plains + Extending into Brahmaputra Plains

           Two Types of Deposits were found here

           1. Glacial Deposits - Glacial Deposits
           2. Pluvial Deposit - Rain Related Deposits

      • Soan Narmada & Madras Culture

        | Themes | Soan | Narmada | Madras | | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Location | 1. Major Part in Son / Sohan Valley Region of Punjab in Pak 2. Potwar Plateau Region 3. Sohan Valley Region 4. Parts of Him & UK (Chauntara) 5. Extended till Brahmaputra Valley | 1. Adamgarh Hills Region 2. Parts of MP, Mah, Rajasthan 3. Pravara Valley 4. Ratnagiri, Mah | 1. Attirampakkam Near Chennai

        2. Extended in TN, Ktk, AnP, Orissa, WB | | Tools Used | 1. Max Presence of Chopping Tools | 1. Max Occurence - Cleavers

        3. Some Evidences of Hand Axis | 1. Dominated by Hand Axis | | Archaeologist Studied | De Terra & Patterson | First by De Terra and Peterson Later by Sankhlia | First by Robert Bruce Foot Later by De Terra, Peterson, Krishna Swami | | Location | 1. Boulder, Pebbles & Gravels dominated

        4. Large Evidences of Glacial Deposits | 1. Complicated Strata of Terraces were found because of Rift Valley | 1. Here Use of Quartz for making stone tools

        5. Evidences of Abbeville - Acheulean Technique was seen |

        In Soan Valley Culture → In the Studies of De Terra and Peterson, The River Bed of Soan or Sohan Valley was divided into 5 different zones or Terraces i.e T1 to T5.

        With T1 at the Highest Feet above the River Bed and Terrace 5 being the Lowest Terrace

        These Terraces were found with different stone types, like Boulders at the Top & Fine Granules towards the Bottom

        In Narmada Culture → due to the presence of Rift Valley with the Flow of Rivers it was difficult to divide the Strata in different terraces. Hence No Such Terrace Division was seen in Narmada Culture

        In Madras Culture → The Terraces were simpler in division studied under three different parts T1, T2, T3. Soan river terraces were most extensively studied

        Jab Kuch Yaad Na Aaye, Tab Ye Likhna !

  • Middle Paleolithic - 3 Lac to 30 K

    • World

      • Location

        Africa

        1. Klasies River Region of South Africa

        Europe

        1. Krapina, Yugoslavia

        Asia

        1. Shanidar Caves in Iraq
        2. Bhimbetka, India
        3. Mugharetes Skhul, Israel

      • Features of Locations

        1. Excavations in Cave & Open Air Sites in Europe, Middle East & Africa

        2. These Era of MPC was last phase of Glaciation or Great Ice Age. Hence called Warm Glaciation Phase

        3. They Lived in Caves & Rock Shelters - They were Insulated with Animal Skin to avoid & protect thyself from Harsh Winters

      • Features of Tools

        • Small Hand Axes, Side Scrapers, Triangular Printed Tools

        • Flake Tool Tech, Eur = Mousterian Tool Culture

          It is called so based on Le Moustier France

          Most Prominent of Mousterian Tool Culture Levalloisian Tech

        • Details of Levalloisian Technique

          1. One Prominent Technique of Mousterian Tool Culture is Levalloisian Stone Tool Making Technique
          2. The Process is SC/F/Sharp

             1. Preparation of Stone Core

                Tortoise Shaped Core → Core Looks Like a Tortoise Shaped Core

             2. Flaking

             3. Sharpened - One or Both Sides

          3. Levalloisian Type Tools Found in Africa were found in Klasies River Region of South Africa. More Flake Tool Found. More Neanderthal Activity Seen

        • Broad Details of Tools of MP Tools

          1. Some of the Tools in Middle Paleolithic Culture might have been hafted (handle lagana) for better grip & action

          2. There was a Significant Degree of Variation in Stone Tools of Mousterian Technique.

             There were Multiple Types of Tools used here even within france

      • Features of Cultures

        • Cannibalism

          1. In Mugharetes Skhul, in Israel - A Fatal Spear Wound in thigh Bones of Human was Found
          2. in Krapina in Yugoslavia (Present Day Balcan) - we found mutilated skulls and bones of men, women & Children

        • Fire

          Multiple Evidences of Fire used for for Warming and Cooking of Meat

        • Bear Cult

          Bear Cult in Western Eurasia

          Worshipping of Cave Beer. Within the Cave They arranged Bones of Cave in Mul Patterns. Hinting About Some Rituals

        • Skilled Hunters

          Neanderthals were Skilled Hunters whose evidence were found in Gibraltar Region.

          They Gathered Shellfish, Seals & even Dolphins

        • Burials

          1. Burial of Dead with Rituals, Flowers, Stone Tools & Animal Bones. Ex : Shanidar Caves of Iraq
          2. Remains of Handicapped Man along with Multiple Pollens were found. Hinting that multiple flowers were used in last rites.
          3. Family Plot for Burial, Le Ferraise in France 5 Children & 2 Adults were apparently buried together
    • India
      • Features of Location
        1. Caves and Rock Shelters in Central India & Deccan
        2. Fossil Bones of Wild Ox, Hunting in Kalegaon Maharashtra
        3. Skull of Wild Elephant in Chandoli Maharashtra
        4. Crystalline Silica tools found in River Pebbles
        5. Middle Paleolithic Cul was found in Foothills, River Valley, Riverbeds, Riverbanks, Forested Area
      • Features of Tools
        1. Sankhlia in Pravara Valley, Nevasa, Mah for the first time recorded & demonstrated flake tools of Middle Paleolithic Culture in India
        2. Called them Nevasian Culture
        3. Sankhlia also found the same kind of tool in Godavari Valley, North Karnataka
        4. Sankhlia Found Flake Tools in Narmada, Son, Krishna, River Valleys
        5. Further Studies Proved that this Study was spread in entire Mah except some coastal area, Seve Places in Ktk, AnP, Ker, Odisha, MPUP, Bihar, Pun, Raj, Guj, WB, No Evidences in North Eastern Region Except Assam
        6. Tools used were - Fale Tools, Hand Axes, Cleavers, Barers, Scrapers
        7. flake tools were prepared and used for scraping the wood, Skin of Animals & Flaking of Various Other things Hunting and Gathering was dominating at South CC as studied by Krishnaswami
      • Features of Culture

        • Various Archaeologists Divided India into Different Zones based on Env Conditions, Tech of Tool Making, Sustiences Activities :

          1. Soan Culture Complex, Central C/C
          2. Narmada Valley of MP + Parts of Guj
          3. Luni Cul Comp, Rajasthan
          4. Nevasian Cul Compl, Mah + Ktk
          5. Southern C/C TN, AP, Odisha
          6. Eastern Southern Complex - UP, Bihar, Bengal

        • Archaeologists Studied

          1. De Terra & Peterson studied the Soan Cul Com in 1935. They Founded Evidences of Middle Paleo in T4

          2. Central C/C De Terra and Peterson Studies Narmada Valley

          3. V N Mishra Excavated Several SItes at Bhimbetka

          4. Balathal studied Looney Valley in Rajasthan

          5. H D Sankalia Studies Nevasain Cul in Maharashtra

          6. Krishnaswami Studied Southern C/C In Various Cultural Complexes of Middle Paleo Cul

          flake tools were prepared and used for scraping the wood, Skin of Animals & Flaking of Various Other things Hunting and Gathering was dominating

        ---

  • Upper Paleolithic - 40 K to 10/12 K Years

    • World

      • Locations

        1. Chauvet, France - Earliest Evidences of Cave Art in World (Nearly 40 K YO)
        2. Apollo 11, Namibia - Nealry 26 K YO
        3. Carpenters Gap, Australlia - Nearly 40 K to 30 K YO (not well defined timelines)

      • Features of Location

        1. Upper Paleolithic Culture was spread in maximum parts of Europe, Middle East, Africa & South Asia
        2. There were almost nil evidences of lower & middle paleolithic culture in australia but significant findings of upper paleolithic sites were seen in australia
        3. this timeline can be considered as the beginning of modern men

      • Features of Tools

        1. Hominis Started Modifying Rock Structures called Knapping
        2. First Evidences of Bow and Arrow
        3. Barbed Harpoons for Fishing
        4. Knapping means Rock Architecture, Modifications and Carvings
        5. Emergence of Activity Specific Tool

      • Features of Culture

        • It is divided into 5 different industries
          1. Chatelperronian
          2. Aurignacian
          3. Gravettian
          4. Solutrean - These were very Skilled Tools
          5. Magdalenian
        • Environment
          1. Initial Evidences of Agriculture
          2. This Period Witnessed Major Env Shifts
          3. It was the Last Phases of Glacial Periods and Witnessed Warming
          4. In the Northern Latitudes & Eurasian Region - Permafrost was still there & Hence, No Growth of Trees
          5. But there was Growth of Small Mosses, Small Steel Flowering Plants
          6. Vast Pastures in Middle Latitude - Hence More No of Herbivores - Hence More Number of Carnivores
          7. Hence Herbi + Carni = Huge Populations
        • Burial
          1. Burial Rituals with Multiple Grave Goods buried with Dead People
          2. Earliest Evidences of use of Red Ochre from Australia. Evidences were found from Burial Grounds from Deads and Burial Grounds !
        • Paintings
          1. Petroglyphs were found in Europe Asia and Africa
          2. Red Ochre Studies in Australia by Dead in Burial Grounds by Hovers
        • Ornaments
          1. Making of Portable Arts & Ornaments Ex: Venus Figurines (Fertility Totems)
          2. Pendants made from Human Molars & Beads
    • India
      • Locations
        1. Krishna Godavari River Valley Andhra pradesh
        2. Narmada and Banjer River Valley in MP
        3. Krishna Tungabhadra & Bheema River Valley in Karnataka
        4. Belan Valley, UP
        5. Along with these River Valleys there were cave sites also like
           1. Kurnool, Andhra Pradesh
           2. Bhimbetka, MP
      • Features of Location
        1. Upper Paleolithic Culture was Restricted to Central India and Deccan
        2. Minimum Evidences from Western India
        3. Almost No Evidences from Himalayan Region, North East , IG Plains Kerala and TN
      • Features of Tools - Missing
      • Features of Culture

        • Zones

          Upper Paleo in India can be divided into 5 Paleo Zones

          1. Southern - AnP
          2. Southern Central - KTK, SPO Mah
          3. Western Peninsula - Mah Guj
          4. Central Zone - MP
          5. NE Zone - UP Bihar

        • Environment

          1. Env - Not Uniform like Lower and Middle Paleolithic
          2. Northern Sites - Colder Climate
          3. Southern Sites - Pluvial Conditions
          4. Evidences of Wild Animals hunting like Antelopes, Gazelles, Wild Horses, Wild ELephant Msot Prom Evidences in Andhra in Kurnool and Jalgaon Region of Maharashtra

        • Archaeologists Studied

          1. H D Sankhlia studied Patna near Jalgaon in Mah and found that UPC was found in 10,400 - 17, 500 Yrs Ago

          2. De Terra & Peterson found evidences of UPC in Narmada Valley

          3. V N Mishra - Narmada Valley. he found that the tools were made up of bones and stones

             tools like Barrers, Scrapers & Evidences of Hand Axis were seen

             Long Bones of Animals were used like in Chisels, Scrapers and Spatulas

             in the Words of V N Mishra, Upper Paleo Cul was non uniform in climate but was uniform in it’s culture

          4. M K Murthy studied, chittoor district of andhra pradesh

        • Paintings

          Upper Paleolithic Culture in India was Involving Proliferation of Artistic Activities like rock carvings and paintings (like involving, man, animal, geometric symbols, etc)

          Bisones and Antelopes were the most common figures in these paintings and hence upper palo in India as well as world laid the foundation of artistic activities which flourished in meso culture

• Mesolithic Culture Old World Archaeological Age 15,000 Years to 5,000 Years

  • World

    1. It was seen in Europe and Some Parts of Middle East

    2. It was because of End of the Climate and Pleistocene Period → i.e Ice Age Got Over

    3. Many Animal and Plant Species became Extinct during this Age

    4. It was a Period of Massive Readjustments

       1. This Led to Emergence of Millions of New Plants and Animals
       2. Also, Humans Started Adjusting to New Conditions

    5. Due to this

       1. Large Scale Tundra Disappeared from Middle and Lower Middle Latitudes Disappeared
       2. Against that Forests Emerged. Also Hunting in the Forests Areas became a Challenge
       3. This led to Temporary Crisis for Hunting Gathering Communities
       4. With time this crisis got settled - by finding an alternative like domestication of plants and animals
       5. Hence Hominins of this time started settlement near the Shores of Rivers and Lakes
       6. Hence Hunting of Fishes and Molluscs led to use of More Barbed Tools
       7. Thus, New Skills and Tools were invented

    6. In Europe there was extensive spread of Mesolithic Culture, Like

       1. Southern Part of Germany, Switzerland - (>2000 Sites)
       2. Czech Republic Poland, England - > 2000 Sites
       3. Netherland, Belgium

    7. In Europe Max Locations used Microliths

       1. Tiny Blades Types of Tools

       2. With Geometric and Non Geometric Shapes, were crescent, triangular, Trapez - Maximum of them were with attached Shaft or Handle

       3. Sometimes to give more strength to the tool, a rod like Structure was also inserted

          

       4. They used some non geometric shapes like

          1. Barbed Bones for Fishing
          2. They made tools out of Bones and Antlers

    8. H D Sankhlia Studied Geometric Microliths in India

       

    9. Due to Settled Lifes. Hence, Sedentary or Semi Sedentary Form of Lifestyles emerged particularly in Coastal Areas, Lakes & Oceans

    10. Due to settling down Population and Population Density Increased

    11. Now when Population Density Increased it led to Beginning of Warfare. Mainly because of two things

        1. Fertile Areas in Comfortable Environments
        2. Possession of Females

    12. First Evidence of Crude Pottery is seen in Ertboel in Germany

    13. Mesolithic Rock Cut Emerged → Mediterranean Coast of Spain - Humans and Animals & Plants Figures - Small Painted Farms and Figures

        Example : Dancers of Cogul in Spain - Movement in Static Art

        Here 9 Women were seen dancing around a male figure

        2 Most Prominent Colors used in this Painting was Red & Black

    14. Excavation of Some Megalithic Monuments in Britain, Iceland and Scandinavian Region revealed their burial rituals

    15. Classical Example and Exception : In Strait of Sicily which was nearly 39 Feet Long and 5 Lac 30,000 Pounds in Weight. Its Purpose is still unknown

    16. Moving from Paleolithic to Early Mesolithic → The Levant Region comprising of Israel, Palestine, Tukey, Syria, Jordan → Witnessed Emergence of Natufian Culture

    17. In Some Area Natufian Culture Flourished in between 13,000 to 15,000 BC also

    18. Main Support and Life Line of this Culture was Jordan River

    19. In Archaeological History the Natufian Culture is considered between Sedentary to Semi/Non Sedentary Lifestyle

    20. They were mainly hunting gathering people who remained restricted to places in period of sufficient resources

    21. They were involved in Mainly Hunting of Gazelles

  • India

    1. It was first discovered in 1866-67 by Archibald Carlyle in caves or rock shelters of Vindhyas

    2. It had more than 1000 microliths in the very first discovery

    3. With a research of 70 to 80 years it was found that there were 100s of microlithic sites that we found in India predominantly Maharashtra, Gujarat, MP, UP, Bihar, West Bengal

       But Also in Rajasthan, TN, Karnataka

    4. With Later Research it evidences were found in

       1. Assam
       2. Indo Gangetic Plains of Pb
       3. Delta Regions of WB

       there were very less microlithic sites. Some Arch said it can be avoided too

    5. Location of Mesolithic Culture in India are

       1. Langhraj, Gujarat → Sankhlia
       2. Bangaltota, Karnataka → Sankhlia
       3. Bhimbetka, MP → Sankhlia
       4. Sanagankalu, Karnataka → Sankhlia
       5. Bagor, Rajasthan → V N Mishra
       6. Tilwara, Rajasthan → V N Mishra
       7. Teni, Tamilnadu → Ayyappam
       8. Birbhanpur, West Bengal → Lal
       9. Sarai Nahar Rai, UP →

    6. Features of Above Locations

       1. These Location were Found in Areas of Scrubby Forest to Thick Forest which could support Small and Large Size Animals
       2. Some Scattered Location were also found in Grassland
       3. Also in Hilly Area
       4. Use of Both Geometric and Non Geometric Tools
       5. Raw Material in the use of Microliths were of Siliceous Rocks, Quartz, Quartzite

    7. Evidences of Tethering or Glueing for making compound tools in Sanagankalu in Karnataka. These evidences are specific to India

    8. In Bhimbetka a Special Structure was created outside the Cave Mouth to act as a windbreak

    9. in Sarai Nahar Rai - Constructed Erected structure for residence

    10. In Bagor a Natural Concrete from River Bed was used as floor of living space

    11. In Adamgarh, Bhimbetka, MP - Here we found Large No of Animal Bones

    12. In Mirzapur Region of UP Evidences of rock paintings over the Petroglyphs

    13. In Max Sites of Mesolithic Period, Microliths as a tool was found designed specifically for a Specific Purpose

    14. No Heavy Tools were Found

• Neolithic Evolution / Revolution - Pending from Class New Stone Age 20,000 Years - 5,000 Years

  • World

    • Introduction

      1. Why is it called as Evolution or Revolution

         Gordon Childe and Many Other Anthropologists said that changes taking place in this period are of far reaching importance

      2. Significant Changes in Technology, Economy, Political & Social Life - Due to these reasons we called this as Revolution

      3. But Literal Meaning of Neolithic is New Stone Age

      4. In Some Parts of the world like in South West Asia it started 20,000 years ago and existed until 8000 year ago

      5. But for Majority of the world including india it was for 12,000 to 7000 Years ago

      6. It can be called as Final Stage of Cultural Evolution in Pre History marked by Settled Villages, Agriculture &. Large Scale Domestication of Animals Started → These changes became irreversible changes

    • Fertile Crescent

      is that part of middle east and near by Africa which was home to some of the earliest human civilisation and hence is also termed as cradle of civilisation - It was FOUND for the First Time

      

    • Three Prominent Changes of Neolithic Period according to Ethnohistorian / Ethno Archaeologist Bennet

      1. Increase in Population
      2. Shift in Climate
      3. Weakening of Social Control

    • Features of Neolithic Revolution

      1. Changed Climate leading to Dominance of Grasses in Middle Latitude. These Grasslands were ideal for growth of Wheat & Barley
      2. Settled Agri - Settled Villages - Sedentary Lifestyle - Increase in Fat Content of Body
      3. Densely Populated Settlements Emerged
      4. Property Ownership Emerged → Personal and Private Land Concept - Hierarchy in Society Emerged - Hereditary Transfer of Property Emerged - Political Administration Emerged
      5. Economic Structure Emerged - like Earliest Evidences of Trade or Exchange of Goods.
      6. There have been evidences of Division of Labour, led to substantial changes in technology and tools making
      7. Earliest Evidence of Woven Textile Clothing of Flax and Cotton

    • Features of Neolithic Tools

      1. Tools were much advance as they were made by chipping, finishing, polishing & grinding
      2. this led to creation of Fine, Sharp & Aesthetic Tools
      3. Clearing of forests for Settled Agriculture was not an easy task. for this efficient axes with smooth finishing and sharpening & a Good Grip is Required.
      4. To achieve this a Polished tool with Smooth End with Bundle was made
      5. Triangular Shaped Stone Tools with Broad and Sharp cutting edge
      6. Matching with Present Day Metallic Axes were used to clear the Forest

    • Features of Pottery Making

      1. Settled Agri - Prodn of Extra Food Grains
         1. Either used in Trade
         2. Either Stored - for Future Use → use of Ceramic and Fire Clay Potter Emerged
      2. With Pottery Potters while came into existence, Instances have been found in Mehrgarh in Balochistan Province of Pakistan
      3. Later Evidences were found in some parts of Europes too

    • Features of Dwelling Units

      1. Made of Stone and Mud Bricks i.e Sun Dried Bricks in Maximum Parts of the World
      2. In India Wattle and Daub Structure were seen
      3. Its a technique in which dried branches of Trees and Bushes were used to create a screen like a Wall and then Mud is plastered over it
      4. These kind of residences were found in various neolithic sites of India in Both Western and Eastern Margins

    • Features of Religion

      1. Some Instances of Spirit Worship were found in Middle East
      2. Complex Burial Rituals

    • Features of Neolithic Natufian

      1. Natufians Continued until this period also
      2. Constructed Permanent houses in fertile crescent region
      3. Catalhoyuk in Turkey is one of the most prominent neolithic sites

    • Features of Location

      European Neolithic Sites were mainly concentrated near Danube River

  • India

    • Introduction

      1. Firstly Discovered in 1840’s by Captain Meadows Tyler in Lingsagaur in Ktk

         Here a Polished Stone Axe as first Neolithic Tool was found

      2. in 1870 another british researcher Fraser discovered first neolithic settlement of India in Bellary Ktk

      3. Robert Bruce Foote discovered more than 200 Neolithic Sites in South India

      4. Some Studies say that time of Neo Lithic Sites in india are 7000 BC - 3000 BC or some say 4000 BC - 1050 BC

    • Prominent Sites in India are
      1. Burzahom - J&K
      2. Gufkral J&K
      3. Nagarjunakonda - Andhra
      4. Bairumpalli - TN
      5. Brahmagiri Hills - Ktk
      6. Chirand - Bihar
      7. Deojati - Assam
    • Features of Location
      1. They Either Lived in Hilly Area or Hilly RIver Valleys
    • Features of Tools
      1. Use of Microlithic Blades
      2. Polished Stones and Stone Hoes & Digging Sticks
      3. Along with Stone Bones were also used in Making of Tools and Weapons
      4. Use of Axe as a weapon along with tool usage started
    • Features of Neolithic Indian Society as a Whole
      1. Houses were made up of Mud - Either Rectangular or Circular
      2. Initially Started with Hand Made Pottery, followed by usage of Potters Wheel, Later finding its pinnacle in Polished Pottery
      3. In Burzahom and Chirand, Maximum evidences of Polished tools have been found
      4. Earliest Evidences of Terracotta Figurines of Humped Bull from Mehrgarh in Pakistan
      5. In Belan Valley UP → Significant Number of Neolithic and Chalo Lithic Sites were Found
      6. Some Evidences of Rice Related Evidences have been seen in Belan Valley too
      7. Hut Kind of Residential Units were initially found in Brahmagiri Hills, Ktk

• Chalcolithic Culture Eneolithic Age or Copper Age 5500 Years - 3600/4200 Years Ago

  • Date Range is Also Called
    1. 5th Millennium BC → 5500 Years
    2. Later 3rd Millennium BC or Early 4th Millennium BC
  • Word
    1. Chalcolithic → Chalco - Copper && Lithic - Stone
    2. The dates are highly variable in different parts of the world
    3. In India it is 2000 BC to 700 BC → In India it is very new
    4. It existed in India in both Pre Harappan and Harappan Periods
    5. this period was a transition zone between Stone to Metal usage
    6. There was a sharp Increase in Number as well as size of settlements
    7. Improvement in Architecture
    8. Wheel Made Pottery ( Diversification of Shapes, Size, Colour) → Associated with Decoration of Pottery & Vessels
    9. For the First time there was appearance of Beads and different materials - Aesthetics Emerged
    10. Terracotta Figurines were of Animals as well as Humans
    11. Use of Metal in Agriculture i.e Non Ferrous Metal → for Small Scale Use
    12. No Significant Social Change in Comparison to Neolithic and Mesolithic Cultures
  • India
    • Introduction

      1. In India First Sites were found in Rajasthan with Malwa Plateau Region followed by Deccan

      2. Later Formed Extensive Spread in India → They were contemporaries of Harappan → as compared to them they were a much simpler society in comparison to harappans

      3. In India, some sites are as old as 3000 BC

      4. Here they are found in River Valleys, Upper Reaches of Rivers, Plains, Arid + Semi Arid Area, Hill Tops, Hill Slopes

         Rarely found in Foothills

      5. Chalco Culture in India is divided into 6 Different Zones

         1. Ahar Culture Zone - Rajasthan
         2. Mala Culture Zone - Kayatha
         3. Mid Gangetic Culture Zone-
         4. Jorwe Culture Zone - Maharashtra
         5. Eastern Chalcolithic - Bihar, Orissa, Bengal
         6. Southern Chalcolithic
         7. Significantly Present in - Plateau Region of Balochistan + Indus Plains in Pakistan
    • Features
      1. Ahar CZ
         1. Location - Ahar + Gilund
         2. Stone Axes - Blades
         3. Copper Tools were abundant
      2. Malwa CZ
         1. Location - Kayatha
         2. Western MP + Northern Maharashtra + Some Parts of Gujarat
         3. Some Spindle Whorls for weaving
         4. Evidences of 29 Copper Bangles
         5. 2 Unique Copper Axes
         6. Necklaces of Semi Precious Stone particularly Steatite with Beads
      3. Jorwe CZ
         1. Location - Jorwe, Daimabad, Nevasa, Inamgaon
         2. Copper Chisels were found
         3. Evidence of Rice
         4. Mother Goddess Figurines
    • Characteristics of Chalcolithic Culture in India

      1. Existed in Diverse Climates - Arid & Semi Arid + Colder Climate + Hotter Climate + Forest Areas + Plains etc

      2. Western India (including Balochistan & Sindh) → This Culture Flourished Before Rest of India

         Western India Flourished Between

         1. 2700 - 1600
         2. More Urban in Nature
         3. Location of Pre Harappan
            1. Amri
            2. Kot Diji
            3. Kalibangan(Raj),
            4. Banwali(haryana
         4. Locations which emerged with Harappa
            1. Ahar in Rajasthan
            2. Nagada in Chambal Region
            3. Navdatoli in Narmada River Basin
            4. Nasik + Nevasa → Godavari Valley
         5. Post Harappan Chalcolithic Culture
            1. Chirand in Bihar
            2. Pandu Raja Dibi
         6. Hence we can conclude that, some chalcolithic cultures were before Indus Valley, with Indus Valley & After Indus Valley

         Rest of India

         1. 2300 - 700
         2. Rural in Nature
         3. Cu & Cu+Tin(Sn)= Bronze
    • Chalcolithic Settlements in South
      • Introduction
        1. Existed Independent of Indus Valley Civilisation
        2. Last Phase of Neolithic Came in Contact with Early Stages of Chalcolithic
        3. Hence there was a Mixture of Neolithic, Chalcolithic leading to Neolithic Chalcolithic Cultural Mux
        4. HD Sankhlia termed → This Southern Chalcolithic Culture Transformed into Megalithic Culture using Iron → hence It was Beginning of Iron Age in India
      • Settlement Size
        1. Mostly Settlements were small sized
        2. Ahar Golund in Raj were of Medium Size
        3. Daimabad in Jorwe Cul were Large Sized
      • House Construction
        1. Use of Mud Bricks
        2. in Ahur Gilund Region of Raj
           1. There were Stone Built House
           2. There was Almost Zero Use of Burnt Bricks
        3. in Jorwe Sites, Mah
           1. The Chiefs / Heads → Houses were Big with Multiple Rooms
           2. Commons had Small Houses and Single Rooms
           3. Hence it is clear Evidence of Division in Society
      • Use of Stone & Metals
        1. Majorly mixed use of Stone and Metal (Copper) - for tools and weapons
        2. in Copper Tools - Flat Rectangular Axes, Fish hooks, Bangles, Chisels.
        3. in Stone - Microliths, Stone Blades, Stone Axes
        4. They used mixed approach of Stone & Metals
      • Pottery
        1. Wheel Based, Black and Red Ware
      • Fooding Habits
        1. There as Significant Food Production
        2. Animal Herders - Cows, Sheep, Goat, Pigs, Buffalos etc
        3. Here animals were not used for Milk or Dairy but they were Slaughtered for Food
        4. In Ahar, Malwa, Jorwe - Cultivation of Cotton, Barley, Wheat, Lentils
        5. in Eastern Chalcolithic Culture Rice was Present
        6. in Southern Chalcolithic Culture Evidences of
           1. Ragi - Finger Millet
           2. Bajra - Pearl Millet
           3. Other Millet
      • Religion & Society
        1. in Ahar Malwa Eastern Souther Sites - in All SItes Socioeconomic Inequalities were present in Chalcolithic Periods
        2. Mother Goddess and Sacred Bull were 2 Prominent Religious Cults

• Copper Bronze Age 2000 BC to 700 BC

  1. Intermediate Time Period Between Chalco Neolithic Period and Iron Ages is Copper Bronze Age or Bronze Age which is not a Dedicated Period
  2. It Existed Earlier with Copper Age and Later with Early Iron Age, There was a Shift from Copper to Bronze and can be studied in the Context of India with Indus Valley Civilisation or Harappan Culture

• Iron Age & Megalithic Culture < 1500 BC

  • Introduction

    1. Mega is Big and Lithic is Stone - Here it is when People Started Making Huge Stone Monuments as Memorials for the Dead
    2. It is Parallel to Iron Ages

  • Timeline

    1. Broadly it is 1000 BC to 700 BC
    2. After Studying of Brahmagiri in Ktk it was found that Megalithic Culture was of 2000 BC to 700 AD
    3. with advanced Carbon 14 Dating Methods, Archaeologists have bracketed Megalithic Culture in India from 1000 BC to 1000 AD

  • Features of Megaliths

    1. Megaliths in the earliest stages were used in the funeral proceedings. Later they were erected as Memorial Stones
    2. It was more commonly they were erected on Foothills and Hillocks
    3. Its Sizes were Highly Variable
    4. Number of other items were used in Funeral Rituals
    5. R M Wheeler defined Megaliths as “those monuments which are built on rough & Large stone and are usually connected with Burials which fulfill funerary or religious functions”

  • Timeline of Discovery

    1. Branfill in 1818 discovered first megalith in India in Ktk & AP Region
    2. Babington in 1818 found Megalith throughout the Malabar Region of Kerala

  • Location

    1. They were Located Throughout India except some parts of Punjab Plains, Indo Gangetic Divide, Dessert Part of Rajasthan & Run Region of Gujarat

  • Division of Megaliths

    For Better Understanding Megaliths were divided into 5 different Zones

    1. Past Period Megaliths
       1. South - South of Godavari
          1. Has Max No of Megaliths
          2. Mainly Made up of Granite & Gneiss
          3. Sometimes people used Pebbles, Sand Stones, Deccan Traps etc with Iron Reefs (Base)
       2. North - J&K, UK, Parts of UP, MP & Del
       3. West - Raj, Mah, Guj
       4. Central - MP, Vidarbha Region
    2. Living Megaliths
       1. East - Assam, Arunachal, WB, Bihar, Orissa, Meghalaya
       2. It is called Living Megaliths as Nagas, Khasis, Garos, Oraons, Mundas, Bondos, Gonds build megaliths even today

  • Features & Characters

    1. Use of Iron and even Cu for Axes, Chisels, Sickles, Knives etc

    2. People Lived in Simple Houses made of Wattle & Daub Structure

    3. There was floor plastering with Lime or Mud

    4. They were Agriculturists & they Started Domestication of Animals for Milk and Dairy Products + use in Agri + hunting was also there

    5. There were Spinners and Weavers

    6. There was a Complex Social Organisation

       Construction of Tombs in Different Dimensions and in a Planned Way Indicated the Social Distinctions or Stratification

    7. dedicated and organised political system emerged

    8. In Religion, Intermixing of Different Cults Occurred

       1. Fertility Cult
       2. Ancestral Cult
       3. Mother Goddess
       4. Trident Worship - Trishul Worship

    9. Sangam Literature

       1. SL has some specific mentions of the soul reaching the upper world
       2. and various megalithic sites were found with certain goods in the graves like Paddy Husk or Garland of Beads showing respect to the Buried Individuals highlighting megalithic burial patterns

  • Types of Megaliths Based on Size Shape & Technique Used - No Details Needed only Remember Names

    1. Menhir (long stones)
    2. Alignments (rows of menhirs)
    3. Avenues
    4. Cists
    5. Cairn Circle
    6. Dolmens
    7. Umbrella Stones
    8. Rock Cut Caves

  • Iron Age

    • World

      1. Started around 1000 BC

      2. Use of Iron for Clearing Forests

      3. Led to Extension of Agriculture

      4. Led to Permanent Settlements

      5. with PS came Political Power

      6. Main Ingredient of Tools and Weapons was Iron

      7. Last Metal Age ( from Copper to Bronze to Iron)

      8. Agricultural Tools + Weapons like

         1. Ploughshare
         2. Sickle
         3. Axe
         4. Arrow Head
         5. Blades

         were made up of Iron

      9. Significant Locations

         1. Mesopotamia - Iraq
         2. Levant - Jordan + Israel
         3. Anatolia - Turkey
         4. Mediterranean
         5. Egypt
         6. Parts of Europe
            1. Scandinavian
            2. Steppe
            3. Caucasus Mountain Region
    • India
      • Intro and Location
        1. Originated around 800 BC
        2. In Jodhpur & Sardar Shahr Region of Rajasthan
        3. Then Present Day Haryana
        4. After these two in Malwa Plateau Region & Northern Maharashtra
        5. Then, Parts of Karnataka and Coastal Andhra
        6. Chirand Region of Bihar
      • Socio Cultural Feature of Iron Ages
        1. Irrigated Agriculture - Barley, Rice, Wheat
        2. Well Flourished Trade & Commerce
        3. Polished Grey Ware of Wehaled Pottery
        4. Complex Class Based Society
        5. Full time Religious Specialists
        6. Dead Bodies buried with Iron Implements
        7. Larger Sized Terracotta Figurine Emerged of Horses camels and humans
        8. Here Political Power transformed into emergence of Kingdoms as units of political control → Led to Warfare
        9. Significant Demographic Changes
           1. Significant Rise in Population
           2. Urbanisation

Unit 1.1 : Proto History (Harappan Culture)

• Introduction to IVC

  1. It is termed as Indus Valley Civilisation
  2. Earlier to Its discovery it was thought that there is no history of India before Aryan Invasion
  3. First Prominent Location Seen was Harappa and Mohenjo Daro
  4. Sir John Marshall was Supervising the Excavations
  5. Harappa
     1. Mr Daya Ram Sahni is credited with Discovery of Harappa
     2. On the Banks of River Ravi
     3. In the Pakistani Part of Punjab
  6. Mr R D Banerjee is credited with Discovery of Mohenjo Daro
     1. On the Banks of River Indus
     2. In the Sindh Province of Pakistan
  7. Timeline
     1. 2800 - 1000 BC - Over All Years
     2. 2500 - 1800 BC - Flourishing Age
  8. Based on this Indus Valley Civilisation is divided into three Phases
     1. Early Phase - 2800 BC to 2500 BC
        1. Beginning of Urbanisation
        2. Walled and Fortified Cities
        3. Use of Cattles as Religious Icons
        4. Political System Emerged - Formation of State
     2. Mature Phase - 2500 BC to 1800 BC
        1. Emergence of Cities
        2. Trade and Commerce
        3. Writing Started - Majorly Pictographic
     3. Later Phase - 1800 BC to 1000 BC
        1. Earlier Signs of Decline due to Various Reasons
  9. Name is Indus Valley Civilisation but it is not restricted to Indus Valley
     1. North - Manda, Kashmir
     2. South - Daimabad, Maharashtra
     3. East - Makran Coast of Balochistan
     4. West - Alamgirpur, Meerut, UP
  10. For the first time Urban Civilization Emerged hence is called a Urban Population. Or else more than 90% civilisation was Rural

• Features of Location

  1. Present Day It Included - Punjab, Sindh, Balochistan Region of Punjab
  2. Over All Area was more than 5 Lac Square Miles
  3. It was larger than Civilisations of Egypt & Mesopotamia
  4. Most Prominent Region was - Plains of Indus + Its Tributaries
  5. It was on the Ghaggar Hakra System ( Ancient Saraswati River)
  6. Coastal Areas of Gujarat (East of Indus System)
  7. Extending Until Makran Coast
  8. In Centre it was by Ganga Yamuna River System

• Important Anthropological Sites & Features

  • Harappa
    1. Six Granaries in a Row
    2. Separate Workmans Quarter
    3. Coffin Burials
    4. Bullock Cart ( Ekka)
    5. Sandstone Statues
    6. Symmetry of Construction
  • Mohenjo Daro
    1. Sindh Province & Indus Bank
    2. Great Bath
    3. Mound of Dead
    4. Large Size Granary
    5. Bronze of Statue of a Dancing Girl
    6. Woven Clothes and Cotton
    7. Seal of Pashupati also called Proto Shiva
    8. Bones of Horses and Buffalo
    9. Assembly Hall, College & Residences of Elites = Citadel
  • Chanhudaro
    1. Only harappan sites where No Citadel or Acropolis was seen
    2. Foot Prints of Dog Chasing a Cat were seen in Chanhudaro
    3. Evidences of Lipstick were found in Chanhudaro
    4. Inkpot was found here
  • Lothal
    1. Evidences of Rice Husk were found here
    2. Joint Burial with Possible Evidences of Sati with a Debate of Couple Burial or Brother Sister Burial
  • Kalibangan
    1. Furrowed Field were found in Kalibangan
  • Dholavira
    1. Unique Water Management System

• Features of Tools and Technology

  1. Significant use of Bronze
  2. Art & Craft Flourished at Indus Valley Civilisation
  3. They used Blades and Flakes
  4. They used Metallic and Lithic Tools
     1. Weapons, Weights, Measures
     2. Axes, Blades, Spears, Knives

• Potteries

  1. Ochre Based and RBW Paintings
  2. Images of Flora and Fauna
  3. Clay Based Pottery
  4. Metallic Utensils were also found here

• Agriculture

  1. They were very Fertile Land as was alluvial soil
  2. Prominent Crops were Barley, Wheat, Cotton, Rice

• Manufacturing

  1. Weights & Measures
  2. Metallic Crafts
  3. Decorative Beads
  4. Cotton Woven Cloth
  5. Trade and Commerce within and Outside the Civilisation

• Society

  1. Division of Society in Upper and Middle Class by Means of Upper and Lower Parts of Cities
  2. Instances of Division of Labour
  3. Instances of Joint Family - Big Rooms - Particularly for Residences of Commoners

• Religion

  1. Flora and Fauna

     Seals with Neem, Peepal, Banyan Tree & Humped Bull

  2. Figures of Gods and Goddesses like Proto Shiva

  3. Goddesses Hint Fertility Cult

  4. Evidences of Cremation and Burial

  5. Fire Altars at Kalibangan

  6. Spirit Worship

  7. Phallus & Yoni Worship

  8. No Evidences of Temples

• They were Successful Because

  1. According to V N Mishra - they were advanced because of their Creative Genius

  2. Environmental and Climatic Conditions

     Fertile Areas, Perennial Rivers, Sufficient Rainfall

  3. Well Established Trade and Commerce due to its geographical location as it was a Gateway to

  4. There was Division of Labour

• Scripts

  1. On Seals, Pots, Walls
  2. More Pictographic and Not Yet Deciphered Fully
  3. Inscriptions seen were from Right to Left - Boustrophedon

• Rough Representation of IVC City

  

• Urban Structures and Town Planning in IVC

  1. Dwelling Units

  2. Citadel / Acropolis

     Occupied by Ruling Class as we found in Mohenjo Daro

  3. Fortified

  4. Assembly

  5. Crematory

  6. Closed Drainage System

     Focus on Hygiene

  7. Well Planned Streets

  8. Arrangement of Houses in Grid Systems

     No Where the Buildings were allowed to encroach into public roads

  9. Instances of Lamp Posts at Regular Intervals

  10. Wells with Potable Drinking Water Facility

  11. Houses with Separate Washrooms and Kitchens

  12. Use of Burnt Bricks in a shape and size of fixed proportion

• Theories on Decline of IVC

  1. River Course Change Theory or Hydrological Changes Theory

     According to V N Mishra, He Studied the Paleo Channel of Ghagra River System and said that in the past it acted as a feeder channel to Indus.

     with course of time it shifted towards the east ultimately joining the ganga system. this resulted in dryness of sutlej and hence the Indus.

     This brought sharp decline in Agri Production and a crash in economy. It was not all of a sudden but rather a gradual phenomenon which ultimately led to decline of IVC

  2. Foreign Invasion Theory

     It Includes Aryan Invasion and European Invasion Theory supported by Pegot, Gordan, Wheeler

     According to Foreign Invasion Theory Entry of Outsiders like Aryans and Europeans led to violent massacre which is evident at Mohenjodaro also highlighted in Rig Veda

     At Various Instances, fortified wall of Urban Locations was reinforced hinting about some probable attack

  3. Climate Change Theory ( Frequent Flooding, Droughts)

     Marshal and Ostein were greatest advocates of this theory, considering significant climatic changes, like flooding droughts and other disasters leading to decline of IVC

  4. Tectonic Phenomenon / Tectonic Depression

     Supported by a Geologists Dales, He Argued that, River Indus was Flooded Suddenly because of Tectonic Phenomenon leading to land depression and tectonic upliftment of river basin

  5. Physio Chemical Explosion

     According to Russian Scholar Dmitriyev, He Explained that there were certain physico chemical explosions including black lightning and sudden rise in temperature upto 15000 degree celsius leading to destruction of civilization

     Such Incidences are also mentioned in Mahabharat

  6. Conclusion

     None of the Theory can scientifically explain the decline of civilisation, rather it can be said that the decline of Indus Valley Civilisation can be an outcome of mixed reasons based on these theories

     Add Somewhere - Spread of Diseases

Unit 1.1 : Contribution of Tribal Cultures to Indian Civilisation Vedic Culture

• Introduction

  1. Tribal and Other Original Inhabitants were makers of Harappan Civilisation
  2. Various Ancient Texts, Archaeological Evidences & Historical Records highlight about tribal culture and their influences or contribution in development of vedic culture and civilisation at Large

• Contribution of Tribal Culture in Languages

  1. Different words from Tribal Dialects and Languages were picked up by various modern day languages like
  2. baal for hair emerged from the word baala in tribal language
  3. bengal emerged from the word bonga in tribal language
  4. baan(arrow) emerged from the word baana in tribal language

• Contribution of Tribal Culture in Ethnic Complexities

  1. When Aryans Invaded India, their ethnicity mixed up with the local tribal ethnicity giving rise to diversity which can be witnessed even today
  2. Assimilation of Priest Hood like the aboriginal Vishwamitra, Vashishta and Bhardwaj were assimilated in aryan fold who were originally black according to aryans.
  3. So Gradually Tribalisation of Aryans and Hinduisation of Tribes took place

• Contribution of Tribal Culture in Economic Life

  The Art of raising crops, use of stone and metallic tools and trade and commerce (like tribal barter system) emerged in tribal life and diffused to civilisations

• Contribution of Tribal Culture in Social Cultural Elements (Including Religion)

  1. Worshipping of Flora & Fauna as deities and even the practise of fasting as a religious gesture is of Adivasi Origin
  2. Gotra System of Gonds, filtered into traditional hindu social organisation and it was later copied by Brahmins
  3. Also, the Institution of Cousin and Cross Cousin Marriages have its origin in Tribal Life which became a part of Larger Civilisation

• Contribution of Tribal Culture in Political System

  The Traditional Political Organisations of Ancient, like Sabhas, Samitis, Assemblies or Chiefdoms gave rise to modern political organisation like Gram Sabhas Gram Panchayats and even central political administration

• Contribution of Tribal Culture in Art & Craft

  Use of Herbs, Plant Products and Natural Derivatives in curing the illness, started in adivasis and later became a significant part of Traditional Medicine in India

  Also various musical instruments and even certain rhymes are inspired by tribal folks

  For Example: veena is derived from Savara Instrument used by Tribals

• Conclusion

  Contribution of Tribal Culture, Led to formation of a complete and composite Indian Civilisation

  Tribalisation of Non Tribals and Hinduisation of Tribes is a continuous process which can be witnessed even today