Living Craft Tradition of India

Introduction

INDIAN ART AND PAINTING

1. Vishnudharmottara Purana's Third Khanda: Chitrasutra

• Introduction: Fifth-century text; source book for Indian art, especially painting.
• Contents:
  • Pratima Lakshana: Art of image-making.
  • Techniques & Tools: Explains perception, 3D representation, materials, etc.
  • Canons of Painting:
    • Roopbheda: Appearance.
    • Pramana: Measurements and proportions.
    • Bhava: Expressions.
    • Lavanya yojana: Aesthetic composition.
    • Sadrishya: Resemblance.
    • Varnikabhanga: Use of brush and colors.
• Legacy: Basis for various painting styles in India.

2. Medieval Paintings

• Miniature Paintings:
  • Named due to small size.
  • Hand-held; never meant for wall display.
• Mural Paintings: Decorated walls of patrons' mansions.
• Manuscript Illustrations:
  • Pictorial translations of verses.
  • Themes: Ramayana, Bhagavata Purana, Gita Govinda, Ragamala, etc.
  • The text inscribed on the painting or its reverse.
• Colophon Page:
  • Important page in a set.
  • Contains details like patron, artist, date, etc.

3. Challenges in Painting History

• Lost Colophons: Many missing due to time, leading to gaps in knowledge.
• Vulnerability: Susceptible to mishandling, and disasters.
• Distribution:
  • Paintings traded, gifted, or taken to distant places.
  • Example: Mewar painting found with the Bundi king.
• Reconstruction Challenges:
  • Few dated sets.
  • Gaps in chronological order.
  • Dispersed original sets across museums and private collections.
• Dating Undated Sets: Based on style and circumstantial evidence.

Western Indian School of Painting

WESTERN INDIAN SCHOOL OF PAINTING

1. Geographic and Economic Context

• Location: Mainly Gujarat, parts of Rajasthan and western Central India.
• Reason for Flourishing: Wealth from trade routes, especially in Gujarat.

2. Jain School of Painting

• Patronage: Largely by the Jain merchant community.
• Shaastradaan: The act of donating illustrated paintings to Jain monasteries' libraries.
• Popular Texts for Illustration:
  • Kalpasutra: Events from the lives of the 24 Tirthankaras.
  • Kalakacharyakatha: Adventures of Acharya Kalaka.
  • Uttaradhyana Sutra: Teachings of Mahavir.
  • Sangrahini Sutra: Cosmological concepts.

3. Painting Materials and Techniques

• Medium: Initially on palm leaves, later on paper.
• Styling:
  • Divided spaces for text and painting.
  • Bright colors, textile patterns, thin lines.
  • Schematic representations with segmented spaces.

4. Evolution and Stylistic Features

• Timeframe: Most creative phase around 1350-1450.
• Characteristics:
  • Use of gold and lapis lazuli.
  • Marginal figures like dancers and musicians.
  • Suggestive architectural elements.
  • Schematic landscapes.

5. Pre-Mughal or Indigenous Style

• Patronage: By feudal lords, wealthy citizens during the late 15th and 16th centuries.
• Themes: Hindu, Jain subjects; non-canonical stories.
• Distinct Features:
  • Transparency of fabrics.
  • Specific hatchings for water bodies.
  • Formalized depictions of nature.
  • Predecessor to early 17th-century Rajasthani paintings.

6. Sultanate School of Painting

• Origins: Interactions between Central Asian artists and local artists.
• Characteristics:
  • The hybrid of Persian influence and indigenous styles.
  • Simplified landscapes, and decorative details.
• Notable Work: Nimatnama from Mandu, during Nasir Shah Khalji's reign.

7. Additional Genres

• Stories with Sufi undertones, e.g., Laurchanda paintings.

Pala School of Painting

1. Historical Context

• Time Period: Pala period (750 CE - mid–12th century).
• Significance: Represented the last significant phase of Buddhist art in India.

2. Centers of Art and Learning

• Nalanda and Vikramsila Monasteries:
  • Major hubs for Buddhist learning.
  • Workshops for bronze image casting.
  • Manuscripts illustrated with Buddhist themes on palm leaves.

3. Dissemination of Pala Art

• Influence: Students and pilgrims from South East Asia.
• Spread: Through Nepal, Tibet, Burma, Sri Lanka, and Java.
• Means: Carried bronze artifacts and illustrated manuscripts.

4. Characteristics of Pala Paintings

• Styling:
  • Flowing, sinuous lines.
  • Subdued color tones.
• Comparison: Sculptural styles at monasteries shared a similar language with painterly images.
• Notable Work: Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita (Bodleian Library, Oxford) from Nalanda Monastery.

5. Decline of Pala Art

• Cause: Weakening of the Pala dynasty and Muslim invasions.
• Impact: Destruction of monasteries in the first half of the 13th century, ending Pala art.

Additional Concepts

1. Manuscripts and Paintings

• Sravakapratikramasutra-curni by Vijayasimha:
  • Origin: Mewar
  • Written by: Kamalchandra
  • Date: 1260
  • Collection: Boston
• Birth of Mahavir, Kalpasutra:
  • Date: 15th century
  • Location: Jain Bhandar, Rajasthan

2. Trishala’s Fourteen Dreams

• Context: Dreams experienced by Mahavir's mother, Trishala, upon conceiving him.
• The Dreams:
  • Elephant, Bull, Tiger, Goddess Shri, Kalash, Palanquin, Pond, Rivulet, Fire, Banners, Garlands, Heap of Jewels, Sun, Moon.
• Interpretation:
  • Given by an astrologer: Trishala's son will either be a sovereign king or a significant saint and teacher.

3. Kalakacharyakatha - 1497

• Key Figures:
  • Kalaka (lower right)
  • His captive sister (top left)
  • Donkey with magical powers spewing arrows at Kalaka's army.
  • Evil king inside a circular fort.
• Collection: N. C. Mehta, Ahmedabad, Gujarat

4. Sangrahini Sutra - 17th Century

• Theme: Planetary bodies and their distances.
• Collection: N. C. Mehta, Ahmedabad, Gujarat

5. Indra Praising Devasano Pado

• Source: Kalpasutra
• Origin: Gujarat, about 1475
• Collection: Boston

6. Other Notable Works

• Chaurpanchasika:
  • Origin: Gujarat, 15th century
  • Collection: N. C. Mehta, Ahmedabad, Gujarat
• Mitharam, Bhagvata Purana: 1550
• Nimatnama:
  • Origin: Mandu, 1550
  • Collection: British Library, London
• Lokeshvar, Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita:
  • Origin: Pala, 1050
  • Collection: National Museum, New Delhi

Introduction

1. Rajasthani Schools of Painting

• Definition: Pertains to schools of painting from various princely kingdoms in present-day Rajasthan and parts of Madhya Pradesh.
• Timeframe: 16th to early 19th centuries.
• Regions included: Mewar, Bundi, Kota, Jaipur, Bikaner, Kishangarh, Jodhpur (Marwar), Malwa, Sirohi, and others.

2. Origin of the Term

• Coined by: Scholar Anand Coomaraswamy in 1916.
• Original Name: 'Rajput Paintings' as most patrons were Rajputs.
• Purpose: Differentiate from the Mughal School of Painting.
• Current Usage: The term 'Rajput Schools' is now obsolete; 'Rajasthani' and 'Pahari' are used instead.

3. Diverse Pictorial Styles

• Characteristics: Varies in execution, color preferences, compositional elements, narration style, naturalism, and mannerism.

4. Painting Process and Materials

• Canvas: Paintings were on "wastes" (layered thin sheets of handmade papers glued for thickness).
• Sketching: Outlined in black or brown.
• Colors: Predominantly from minerals and precious metals (gold and silver). Mixed with glue for binding.
• Brushes: Made from camel and squirrel hair.
• Finishing: Paintings were burnished with agate for a uniform shine.

5. Teamwork in Painting

• Master Artist: Composed and created preliminary drawings.
• Pupils/Experts: Specialized in coloring, portraiture, architecture, landscape, animals, etc.
• Final Touches: Applied by the master artist.
• Scribe: Wrote verses in allocated spaces.

Themes of Paintings: An Overview

1. Bhakti Movement Influence

• 1.1. Vaishnavism: Gained popularity in the 16th century in western, northern, and central India.
• 1.2. Krishna: Worshipped as God and an ideal lover, representing a synthesis of sensuousness and mysticism.

2. Prominent Texts & Their Themes

• 2.1. Gita Govinda:
  • Composed by Jayadeva in the 12th century.
  • Describes the mystical love between Radha and Krishna.
• 2.2. Rasamanjari:
  • By Bhanu Datta in the 14th century.
  • A treatise on rasa, classifying heroes and heroines based on age, appearance, and emotional states.
• 2.3. Rasikapriya:
  • By Keshav Das in 1591.
  • Explores various emotional states of lovers through Radha and Krishna.
• 2.4. Kavipriya:
  • Another work by Keshav Das.
  • Describes a love tale and climatic depictions of different months.
• 2.5. Bihari Satsai:
  • Authored by Bihari Lal around 1662.
  • 700 verses (satsai) in the form of aphorisms and moral witticisms.

3. Painting Genres

• 3.1. Ragamala Paintings: Pictorial interpretations of ragas and raginis.
• 3.2. Bardic Legends: Includes tales like Dhola-Maru, Sohni-Mahiwal, Mrigavat, etc.
• 3.3. Religious Texts: Favorites include Ramayana, Bhagvata Purana, Mahabharata, and Devi Mahatmya.
• 3.4. Depictions in Paintings:
  • Darbar scenes and historical moments.
  • Hunting expeditions, wars, and victories.
  • Picnics, parties, performances, rituals, and festivals.
  • Portraits of royalty and city views.
  • Birds and animals.

Malwa School of Paintings

1. Malwa School Overview

• 1.1. Timeline: Flourished between 1600 and 1700 CE.
• 1.2. Distinction: Represented the Hindu Rajput courts and showcased two-dimensional simplistic language.
• 1.3. Evolution: Progressed stylistically from Jain manuscripts to Chaurpanchashika manuscript paintings.

2. Origin & Territory

• 1.1. Ambiguity: Unlike Rajasthani schools with specific origins, Malwa's exact center of origin is not precise.
• 1.2. Potential Centers: Areas in Central India, including Mandu, Nusratgarh, and Narsyang Sahar.
• 1.3. Dated Works: Includes the Amaru Shataka (1652 CE) and a Ragamala painting by Madho Das (1680 CE).

3. Datia Palace Collection

• 1.1. Significance: A large number of Malwa paintings discovered here.
• 1.2. Mural Paintings: Show Mughal influence, contrasting with works on paper that lean towards indigenous two-dimensional style.
• 1.3. Patronage: Lack of mention of patron kings or portraits suggests paintings might have been acquired from traveling artists.

4. Popular Themes in Malwa Paintings

• Ramayana, Bhagvata Purana, Amaru Shataka, Rasikapriya, Ragamala, and Baramasa.

Mewar School of Paintings

1. Mewar School Overview

• 1.1. Significance: Considered an early center of painting in Rajasthan.
• 1.2. Historical Context: Wars with the Mughals eradicated many early examples.
• 1.3. Emergence: Associated with a set of Ragamala paintings from 1605 by artist Nisardin.

2. Influential Artists & Their Works

• 2.1. Sahibdin: Painted the Ragamala (1628), Rasikapriya, Bhagvata Purana (1648), and Yuddha Kanda of Ramayana (1652).
• 2.2. Manohar: Notable work includes Bal Kanda of Ramayana (1649).
• 2.3. Jagannath: Painted the Bihari Satsai in 1719.

3. Themes & Styles

• 3.1. Early Themes: Direct approach, simple compositions, decorative details, and vibrant colors.
• 3.2. 18th Century: Shifted focus from textual representations to royal activities and pastimes.
• 3.3. Preferred Palette: Bright colors, with dominant reds and yellows.

4. Nathdwara Influence

• 4.1. Significance: Emerged as a painting school in the late 17th century.
• 4.2. Pichhwais: Large backdrops painted on cloth for the deity Shrinathji during festivals.

5. Secular Shift in 18th-Century Mewar Painting

• 5.1. Themes: Portraiture, court scenes, hunting, festivals, zenana activities, and sports.
• 5.2. Narrative Techniques: Oblique aerial perspective for ambitious scale. Layered multiple episodes or spread a single episode over multiple folios.

Bundi School of Paintings

1. Bundi School Overview

• 1.1. Period: Flourished in the 17th century.
• 1.2. Characteristics: Known for vibrant color sense and excellent design.

2. Early Developments

• 2.1. Bundi Ragamala (1591): One of the earliest paintings, originated from Chunar during Bhoj Singh's reign.

3. Major Patrons & Their Contributions

• 3.1. Rao Chattar Sal (1631–1659): Made governor of Delhi by Shahjahan; played a key role in the Deccan conquest.
• 3.2. Rao Bhao Singh (1659–1682): Patronized many artworks; and commissioned numerous portraits.
• 3.3. Umed Singh (1749–1771): Paintings during his reign saw refinement in details and imbibed Deccani aesthetics.
• 3.4. Bishen Singh (1771–1821): Loved hunting; his adventures were frequently depicted in paintings.
• 3.5. Ram Singh (1821–1889): Decorated the chitrashalain of the Bundi palace with mural paintings.

4. Unique Features

• 4.1. Nature: Emphasis on lush vegetation, landscapes, wildlife, and water bodies.
• 4.2. Portraits: Equestrian portraits; unique depictions of elephants.
• 4.3. Feminine Beauty: Women are depicted as petite with distinct facial and bodily features.

5. Early Artists & Influences

• 5.1. Bundi Ragamala Artists: Shaykh Hasan, Shaykh Ali, and Shaykh Hatim; pupils of Mughal court artists.

6. Noteworthy Artworks

• 6.1. Raga Dipak: Illustrates a night setting with a couple illuminated by four lamps.
• 6.2. Baramasa: Atmospheric descriptions of the 12 months, based on Keshav Das' writings.

Kota School of Paintings

1. Kota School Introduction

• 1.1. Origin: Evolved from the Bundi tradition, excelling in hunting scenes.
• 1.2. Differentiation: Initially similar to Bundi, but developed a distinctive style by emphasizing architectural and figural exaggerations.

2. Historical Background

• 2.1. Separation from Bundi: Kota became independent in 1625 when Jahangir awarded it to Madhu Singh.
• 2.2. Start of Kota School: Commenced around the 1660s during Jagat Singh's reign.

3. Style Evolution

• 3.1. Borrowing from Bundi: Initial paintings were heavily influenced by Bundi.
• 3.2. Individuality: Kota's style became more distinct over time, especially in drawing.
• 3.3. Landscape Emphasis: Kota artists were pioneers in treating landscape as the main subject.

4. Major Patrons & Their Influence

• 4.1. Ram Singh I (1686–1708): Artists expanded their range of subjects during his reign.
• 4.2. Umed Singh (1770–1819): Became king at age 10; his regent Zalim Singh governed while Umed Singh indulged in hunting. Many paintings from this period depict his hunting exploits.

5. Distinctive Features

• 5.1. Execution: Paintings are spontaneous and calligraphic.
• 5.2. Shading: Emphasis on marked shading, notably the double-lid eye.
• 5.3. Expertise: Kota artists were particularly skilled in portraying animals and combat scenes.

Bikaner School of Paintings

1. Bikaner School Origins

• 1.1. Foundation: Founded by Rao Bika Rathore in 1488.
• 1.2. Library: Anup Singh (1669–1698) set up a library that became a repository for manuscripts and paintings.
• 1.3. Influence: Due to close ties with the Mughals, Bikaner paintings show Mughal elegance and a muted color palette.

2. Key Artists & Influences

• 2.1. Ustad Ali Raza: A master painter from Delhi employed by Karan Singh.
• 2.2. Ruknuddin: Merged indigenous styles with Deccani and Mughal conventions. Painted texts like Ramayana and Durga Satpsati.
• 2.3. Other Artists: Ibrahim, Nathu, Sahibdin, and Isa were prominent painters in Ruknuddin's atelier.

3. Studio (Mandi) System

• 3.1. Function: Studios, or Mandis, were places where artists worked under a master artist's supervision.
• 3.2. Master's Role: A common practice was for the master artist to finish or add final touches to paintings.
• 3.3. Studio Tasks: Apart from creating new artwork, studios were responsible for repairs and making copies of older works.

4. Unique Features

• 4.1. Artist Portraits: Bikaner School had a unique tradition of creating portraits of artists, inscribed with details about their lineage. They were often referred to as Ustas or Ustad.
• 4.2. Style Attributes: Ruknuddin preferred soft color tones, while Ibrahim's works had a dreamlike quality with delicate figures.

5. Documentation

• 5.1. Records: Bikaner School is one of the best-documented schools due to Bahis (royal diaries) and numerous inscriptions on paintings.
• 5.2. Information: Inscriptions, mainly in Marwari (sometimes Persian), provide details like artist names, dates, production places, and commission reasons.

Kishangarh School of Paintings

1. Characteristics of Kishangarh Paintings

• 1.1. Stylistic Traits: Among the most stylized Rajasthani miniatures.
• 1.2. Facial Features: Arched eyebrows, lotus-petal eyes with pink tinge, drooping eyelids, slender nose, and thin lips.

2. Historical Background

• 2.1. Establishment: The state of Kishangarh was founded by Kishan Singh in 1609.
• 2.2. Man Singh's Era (1658–1706): Artists began working in the Kishangarh court.
• 2.3. Raj Singh's Reign (1706–1748): Elongated human forms, extensive use of green, and panoramic landscapes.

3. Influence of Pushtimargiya Cult

• 3.1. Raj Singh's Initiation: Adoption of the Pushtimargiya cult of Vallabhacharya.
• 3.2. Theme Impact: Krishna Lila themes became predominant in Kishangarh art.

4. Nihal Chand's Contribution

• 4.1. Role: Main artist for Sawant Singh (1735–1757).
• 4.2. Themes: Painted Sawant Singh’s poetry on divine lovers, Radha and Krishna.
• 4.3. Landscape: Courtly settings with vast panoramic landscapes.
• 4.4. Color Palette: Accentuated colors used in depictions of vistas.

Jodhpur School of Paintings

1. Mughal Influence

• 1.1. Onset: 16th century.
• 1.2. Impact: Visual aesthetics seen in portraiture and court scenes.
• 1.3. Indigenous Resistance: Prevailing folkish style resisted overpowering by Mughal influence.

2. Earliest Artworks

• 2.1. Ragamala Set: Painted in Pali by artist Virji in 1623.

3. Maharaja Jaswant Singh's Era (1638–1678)

• 3.1. Peak Period: Mid–17th century.
• 3.2. Trends: Documentary painting through portraiture and depiction of court life.
• 3.3. Patronage: Favored Krishna-related themes, prominently Bhagvata Purana.

4. Ajit Singh's Period (1679–1724)

• 4.1. Historical Context: 25 years of war with Aurangzeb.
• 4.2. Veer Durgadas Rathore: Legendary warrior who recaptured Marwar.
• 4.3. Art Trend: Equestrian portraits celebrating Durgadas's heroism.

5. Reign of Man Singh (1803–1843)

• 5.1. Notable Works: Ramayana (1804), Dhola-Maru, Panchatantra (1804), and Shiva Purana.
• 5.2. Unique Representation: Rama’s Ayodhya is depicted as Jodhpur.
• 5.3. Cultural Interweaving: Local architecture and costumes integrated into stories of Krishna, Rama, etc.
• 5.4. Spiritual Influence: Follower of the Nath Sampradaya; paintings of him with Nath gurus and Nath Charita set.

6. Inscriptions on Paintings

• 6.1. Limited Information: Rare mentions of dates, artist names, or painting locations until the 19th century.

Jaipur School of Paintings

1. Origins & Mughal Influence

• 1.1. Initial Capital: Amer, located close to Mughal capitals (Agra & Delhi).
• 1.2. Cordial Relations: Jaipur rulers, especially Raja Bharmal and his descendants, had friendly ties with Mughal emperors.

2. Establishment of Jaipur

• 2.1. Founding Ruler: Sawai Jai Singh (1699–1743).
• 2.2. Relocation: Shifted the capital from Amer to Jaipur in 1727.
• 2.3. Mughal Influence: Invited Mughal painters from Delhi; reorganized the Suratkhana.

3. Sawai Jai Singh's Contributions

• 3.1. Religious Focus: Drawn to Vaishnavite sect; patronized paintings of Radha and Krishna.
• 3.2. Popular Themes: Rasikapriya, Gita Govinda, Baramasa, and Ragamala.
• 3.3. Prominent Artists: Sahibram and Muhammad Shah.

4. Sawai Ishwari Singh (1743–1750)

• 4.1. Patronage: Continued supporting the arts.
• 4.2. Themes: Besides religious and literary, added scenes of leisure and hunts.

5. Sawai Madho Singh (1750–1767)

• 5.1. Focus: Captured incidents from court life in paintings.

6. Sawai Pratap Singh's Era (1779–1803)

• 6.1. Distinct Jaipur Style: Reduced Mughal influence; blended Mughal and indigenous styles.
• 6.2. Patronage: Employed ~50 artists.
• 6.3. Themes: Royal portraits, courtly life, Gita Govinda, Ragamala, Bhagvata Purana, etc.

7. Art Techniques and Features

• 7.1. Copying Methods: Tracing and pouncing.
• 7.2. Aesthetic Trends: Lavish use of gold by the early 19th century.
• 7.3. Preferred Format: Large-size formats, including life-size portraits.

Additional Concepts

1. Bhagvata Purana & Depictions of Lord Krishna

• 1.1. Theme: Popular medieval subject showcasing Lord Krishna's life and Leela.
• 1.2. Example: Painting of Krishna killing demon Shaktasura (1680–1690) in National Museum, New Delhi.
• 1.3. Style: Malwa style; compartmentalized scenes narrating various episodes.

2. Maru Ragini

• 2.1. Importance: Provides vital documentary evidence regarding the artist, patron, date, and place.
• 2.2. Story: Dhola-Maru ballad—depicts the struggles of Prince Dhola and Princess Maru.
• 2.3. Description: The couple escaping together on a camel.

3. Raja Aniruddha Singh Hara & Equestrian Portrait

• 3.1. Equestrian Portrait: By Tulchi Ram, 1680; depicts a perception of speed.
• 3.2. Controversy: Names inscribed on a painting create confusion about its subject.
• 3.3. Collection: National Museum, New Delhi.

4. Chaugan Players & Krishna Swinging and Radha in Sad Mood

• 4.1. Chaugan Players: A painting of a princess playing Polo; combines styles from multiple schools.
• 4.2. Krishna & Radha: Painted by Nuruddin in 1683; depicts a narrative from indoors to outdoors.

5. Bani Thani

• 5.1. Background: Sawant Singh's muse, is celebrated for her beauty and elegance.
• 5.2. Significance: Represents the blending of poetry and painting.
• 5.3. Facial Features: Unique, with deeply curved eyes, arched eyebrows, and pointed nose.

6. Rama meets Members of his Family at Chitrakut

• 6.1. Theme: Depicts Bharat's visit to persuade Rama to return to Ayodhya.
• 6.2. Setting: Chitrakut, with plain huts in a rural setting.
• 6.3. Narrative: Continuous story from left to right of the painting.

7**. Ragamala Paintings**

• 1.1. Definition: Paintings that envision ragas in divine or human forms.
• 1.2. Mood & Time: Each raga corresponds to a specific mood, time of day, and season.
• 1.3. Organization: Albums typically have 36 or 42 folios, structured as families.
• 1.4. Main Ragas: Bhairava, Malkos, Hindol, Dipak, Megha, and Shri.

8**. Schools of Painting**

• 2.1. Mughal School: Dominated in the 16th century from Delhi, Agra, Fatehpur Sikri, and Lahore.
• 2.2. Provincial Mughal: Found across India; a mix of Mughal and local elements.
• 2.3. Deccani School: Flourished in Ahmednagar, Bijapur, Golconda, Hyderabad from the 16th century.
• 2.4. Rajasthani School: Rose to prominence in late 16th and early 17th century.
• 2.5. Pahari School: Gained traction in the late 17th and early 18th centuries.

9**. Notable Paintings & Locations**

• 3.1. Krishna & Gopis: Mewar, 1550, Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya, Mumbai.
• 3.2. Raga Dipak: Bundi, 1519, Bharat Kala Bhavan, Varanasi.
• 3.3. Maharana Jagat Singh II: 1744, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
• 3.4. Krishna as Shrinathji: Nathdwara, 1800, National Museum, New Delhi.
• 3.5. Dhola & Maru: Jodhpur, 1810, National Museum, New Delhi.
• 3.6. The Hour of Godhuli: Jaipur, 1780, National Museum, New Delhi.

Introduction

1. Mughal Painting

• 1.1. Definition: Miniature painting style from northern India, spanning the 16th to mid-19th century.
• 1.2. Characteristics: Known for sophisticated techniques and a wide array of subjects and themes.
• 1.3. Influence: Paved the way for various subsequent Indian painting schools and styles.

2. Mughal Patronage

• 2.1. Arts Supported: Embraced diverse arts such as calligraphy, architecture, painting, bookmaking, and book illustration.
• 2.2. Contribution: Each Mughal successor added value based on personal preferences, enhancing India's art scene.
• 2.3. Significance: For a comprehensive understanding of Mughal Painting, studying the Mughal dynasty's political history and genealogy is crucial.

Influences of Mughal Paintings

1. Mughal Miniature Painting

• 1.1. Definition: A blend of indigenous, Persian, and European themes and styles.
• 1.2. Characteristics: Reflects synthesis of various cultural influences.
• 1.3. Significance: Represents a unified vision of diverse tastes, philosophies, and faiths.
• 1.4. Comparison: Surpasses conventional Indian and Iranian art of its era.

2. Influences and Integration

• 2.1. Indo-Iranian Blend: Mughal courts integrated Indian and Iranian art, primarily in the early years.
• 2.2. Diverse Artist Origins: Both Indian and Iranian artists contributed, enriching the Mughal art form.
• 2.3. Historical Continuation: The Mughal style emerged from a background of rich Indian art traditions.
• 2.4. Interaction with Other Styles: The style was influenced by pre-existing Indian and Persian art forms.

3. Patronage

• 3.1. Role: Mughal patrons played a vital role in the evolution and proliferation of Mughal painting.
• 3.2. Artistic Preferences: Their choices in subjects and aesthetics shaped the Mughal art narrative.
• 3.3. Upcoming Segment: The chapter will delve into the chronological development of Mughal miniature painting.

Early Mughal Painting

1. Early Mughal Painting

• 1.1. Babur (1526)
  • Descendent of Emperor Timur and Chaghtai Turk.
  • Merged Persia and Central Asia's cultural aesthetics.
  • Authored "Baburnama" showcasing his love for India and the arts.
  • Mentioned artists like Bihzad and Shah Muzaffar in memoirs.
• 1.2. Humayun (1530)
  • Dethroned by Sher Khan, found refuge in Safavid Persian ruler Shah Tahmasp's court.
  • Influenced by Safavid art during exile.
  • Brought Persian artists Mir Sayyid Ali and Abd us Samad to India.
  • Founded the Nigaar Khana (painting workshop).
  • Initiated the illustration of Hamza Nama.

2. Akbar's Patronage

• 2.1. Cultural Integration
  • Translated and illustrated revered Hindu texts like Mahabharata (Razm Nama) and Ramayana.
  • Employed over 100 artists, both Persian and Indian.
  • Commissioned Akbar Nama, detailing his life.
• 2.2. Signature Works
  • Hamza Nama: Large cloth-based paintings of Hamza's stories, completed over 15 years.
  • Princes of the House of Timur (1545-50): Evolving portraiture showing Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan.

3. Jahangir's Aesthetic Evolution

• 3.1. Personal Taste
  • Valued delicate observations and fine details.
  • Encouraged naturalistic representation.
• 3.2. European Influence
  • Fascinated by European art and Christian themes.
  • Mughal art became a blend of indigenous, Persian, and European styles.
• 3.3. Signature Works
  • Jahangir in Darbar, Jahangir's Dream, Jahangir enthroned on an Hourglass.

4. Shah Jahan's Magnificence

• 4.1. Artistic Shift
  • Preferred idealization and stylization over naturalism.
  • Emphasized subliminal qualities and exalted beautification.
• 4.2. Signature Projects
  • Padshahnama: Documenting his reign's splendor.
  • Mughal art influenced European artists like Rembrandt.

5. Dara Shikoh and Aurangzeb

• 5.1. Dara Shikoh
  • A liberal Mughal with a commitment to Sufi mysticism.
  • Depicted with sages in a garden painting.
• 5.2. Aurangzeb
  • Prioritized empire expansion.
  • Mughal atelier continued under his rule but without significant emphasis.

Later Mughal Painting

1. Decline of Mughal Painting Patronage

• 1.1. Shift of Artists
  • Skilled artists departed from the Mughal atelier due to diminished patronage.
  • Joined provincial Mughal rulers aiming to depict their dynasty's grandeur.

2. Last Remnants of Mughal Miniature Style

• 2.1. Muhammad Shah Rangila to Bahadur Shah Zafar
  • Few masterpieces were produced, but they were the final traces of the Mughal miniature style.
• 2.2. Bahadur Shah Zafar (1838)
  • Last Mughal ruler, a poet, scholar, and connoisseur.
  • Exiled to Burma by the British post the Indian Revolt of 1857.

3. Changing Political and Art Landscape

• 3.1. English Ascendancy & Regional Unrest
  • Altered India's art scenario.
  • Painters adapted to the changing tastes of patrons, evolving subject matters, and visual language.
• 3.2. Convergence with Other Styles
  • The Mughal miniature style merged into Provincial and Company School styles.

Process of Mughal Paintings

1. Mughal Miniatures: Context

• 1.1. Origin
  • Mughal miniatures primarily belonged to manuscripts and royal albums.
  • Visuals and text coexisted in the same format.

2. Creation Process

• 2.1. Paper Preparation
  • Handmade paper sheets were fashioned to match the intended manuscript size.
• 2.2. Layout Design
  • Specific spaces were designated for the artist to fill with visual compositions.
  • The remaining areas were ruled and populated with text.
• 2.3. Artistic Process
  • Post-text addition, artists were handed the pages.
  • 2.3.1. Composition (tarh): Initial stage where the artist decides on the visual layout.
  • 2.3.2. Portraits (chiharanama): Introduction of characters or subjects.
  • 2.3.3. Coloring (rangamizi): Final stage where vibrant colors were applied to bring the artwork to life.

Colours and Technique of Mughal Paintings

1. Materials and Base

• 1.1. Paper
  • Handmade and specially prepared for Mughal paintings.

2. Colour and Technique

• 2.1. Sources
  • Opaque colours are derived from natural sources.
  • Pigments are ground and mixed for desired shades.
• 2.2. Application
  • Brushes crafted from squirrel or kitten hair.
• 2.3. Collaboration
  • Typically, a group effort within workshops.
  • Tasks distributed based on specialization: draft drawing, grinding colours, filling in, and detailing.
  • Some artworks are produced solely by one artist.
• 2.4. Incentives
  • Artists are rewarded with bonuses and raises based on work quality.
  • Master artists held esteemed positions in royal ateliers.
• 2.5. Final Touches
  • Agate gemstone is used for burnishing to set colours and impart radiance.

3. Pigments and Colours

• 3.1. Sources and Colours
  • Vermilion from cinnabar.
  • Ultramarine from Lapis Lazuli.
  • Bright yellow from orpiment.
  • White from ground shells.
  • Black from charcoal (lampblack).
• 3.2. Luxury Elements
  • Gold and silver powders are added to enhance the artwork's opulence.

Additional Concepts

1. The Mughal Atelier

• 1.1. Composition
  • Included calligraphers, painters, gilders, and binders.
• 1.2. Purpose
  • Documented significant events, personalities, and interests of emperors.
  • Served as intellectual stimulation and were meant for royal eyes only.
• 1.3. Paintings' Nature
  • Part of manuscripts and albums.

2. Mughal vs Indigenous Styles

• 2.1. Indigenous Style
  • Emphasized flat perspective, bold lines, vivid colors, and strong figure modeling.
• 2.2. Mughal Style
  • Noted for its subtlety, finesse, and optical realism.
  • Featured three-dimensional figures, royal court scenes, portraits, and accurate flora/fauna depictions.
  • Introduced a new level of sophistication to Indian arts.

3. Noteworthy Mughal Paintings

• 3.1. Noah’s Ark
  • Artist: Miskin.
  • Depicts Prophet Noah in the ark saving animals from God's flood.
• 3.2. Krishna Lifts Mount Govardhan
  • Artist: Miskin.
  • Depicts Lord Krishna lifting a mountain to protect villagers from rain sent by God Indra.
• 3.3. Falcon on a Bird Rest
  • Artist: Ustad Mansur.
  • Depicts a falcon, reflecting Jahangir's love for falcons.
• 3.4. Zebra
  • Artist: Ustad Mansur.
  • An Ethiopian zebra presented to Jahangir, later added to Shah Jahan's royal album.
• 3.5. The Marriage Procession of Dara Shikoh
  • Artist: Haji Madni.
  • Portrays the marriage procession of Dara Shikoh, Shah Jahan's eldest son.

Introduction

1. Deccani Painting History

• 1.1. Timeframe
  • Primarily from the late sixteenth century to the 1680s, when the Mughals conquered the Deccan.
  • Continued under the Asafiya dynasty and into the 19th century.
  • Witnessed in the provincial courts of Rajas and Nawabs in the State of Hyderabad under the Nizam.

2. Deccani Style's Recognition

• 2.1. Earlier Views
  • Was categorized under Indo-Persian art.
  • Perceived as Middle Eastern, Safavid, Persian, Turkish, and Mughal.
• 2.2. Modern Understanding
  • Recognized as a distinct school, sustained by rulers with unique political and cultural visions.
  • These rulers nurtured artists and commissioned works fitting their sensibilities and governance needs.

3. Artistic Inclinations

• 3.1. Portraiture
  • Portrayal of historical and religious figures was common, not just unique to Mughal art.
  • Similar inclinations were seen in Safavid and Ottoman Schools of Painting.
  • Highly documentary nature of portraits unique in Asian Islamic art and Mughal art.

4. Deccani Painting Region & Features

• 4.1. Location
  • Southern India, beyond the Vindhya mountain range.
• 4.2. Distinct Qualities
  • Nurtured under Sultans of the Deccan in the 16th and 17th centuries.
  • Bijapur, Golconda, and Ahmadnagar kingdoms developed a distinct court painting style.
• 4.3. Characteristics
  • Sensuality, intense colors, affinity to regional aesthetics.
  • Dense composition with a strong aura of romance.
  • Eloquent, natural, and vivid expression.

Ahmadnagar School of Paintings

1. Ahmadnagar School of Painting

• 1.1. Origin
  • The earliest examples are found in poems celebrating the reign of Hussain Nizam Shah I (1553–1565).
• 1.2. Characteristics
  • 12 miniatures primarily depict battle scenes.
  • Noteworthy ones portray the queen in vibrant colors and sensuous lines.

2. Influences and Style

• 2.1. Northern Tradition
  • Queen's representation is reminiscent of pre-Mughal painting from Malwa and Ahmedabad.
  • Women are depicted with choli, long braided pigtails, and a scarf—a blend of northern and southern styles.
• 2.2. Palette and Landscape
  • Richer and more brilliant than northern manuscripts from the Mughal atelier.
  • High circular horizon and gold sky influenced by Persian aesthetics.

3. Ragamala Paintings

• 3.1. Features
  • Females with buns at the nape, resembling Lepakshi murals.
  • Landscape with neutral ground and architectural domes.
  • Male attire, including the jama and pagri, shows Northern influence.

4. Persian and Bukhara Influence

• 4.1. Traits
  • Costume styles, horizons, and other elements were influenced by northern India and Persia.
• 4.2. Bukhara Artists
  • Believed to have worked in the Deccan, as supported by the Gulistan manuscript of 1567.
  • A manuscript in Bankipore Library, signed by scribe Yusuf, dedicated to Ibrahim Qutb Shah of Golconda (1550–1580) displays the Bukhara idiom.

Bijapur School of Paintings

• 1.1. Noteworthy Works
  • Nujum al-Ulum dated 1570: Encyclopaedia with 876 miniatures illustrating weapons, utensils, and constellations.
• 1.2. Characteristics
  • Women are depicted as tall and slender in South Indian dress, similar to the Ragamala paintings.

2. Patrons and Influences

• 2.1. Royal Patrons
  • Ali Adil Shah I (1558–1580) and Ibrahim II (1580–1627).
  • Ibrahim II owned the Nujum al-Ulum manuscript and likely commissioned the Ragamala series in the 1590s.
• 2.2. Cultural Connections
  • Bijapur had ties with Turkey; astronomical illustrations possibly inspired by Ottoman Turkish manuscripts.
  • Adil Shah Court's aestheticism was evident in brilliant coloring and simplified compositions.

3. Specific Artworks

• 3.1. Throne of Prosperity
  • Symbolic diagram with seven stages.
  • Structure reminiscent of Gujarati homes or Deccani temples.
  • Coloring is influenced by Islamic Persian tradition.
• 3.2. Deccani Painting: Yogini
  • Represents an individual devoted to yoga and spiritual exploration.
  • Vertical composition, with the standing figure of the Yogini.
  • The Yogini is shown interacting with a myna bird, adorned with jewelry, and surrounded by exquisite flora.

Golconda School of Paintings

1. Golconda School of Painting Background

• 1.1. Historical Context
  • Became independent in 1512.
  • Wealthiest Deccan kingdom by the late 16th century due to trade and diamond discovery.

2. Golconda's Art Influence and Popularity

• 2.1. Trade Influence
  • Trade with Persia popularized painted cottons.
• 2.2. European Recognition
  • Dutch merchants carried sultan portraits to Europe in the 17th century.
• 2.3. Unique Artistic Features
  • Wall hangings as large as eight feet high.
  • Pictorial designs with architectural settings.

3. Noteworthy Works and Characteristics

• 3.1. Diwan of Hafiz (1463)
  • Five miniatures showcasing court scenes.
  • Depiction of a young ruler with a Deccani sword.
  • Lavish use of gold and deep azure sky.
  • Dance performances for royal entertainment.
  • Notable use of the color purple; instances of blue animals.
• 3.2. Portrait of Muhammad Qutb Shah (1611–1626)
  • Depicts the ruler in a typical Golconda dress.
  • Combination of symmetry and Mughal influence.
• 3.3. Sufi Poem Manuscript
  • Over 20 miniatures with abundant use of gold.
  • Distinctive sky coloring in gold and blue bands.
  • Costumes reflecting fashion under Ibrahim II of Bijapur.
  • Richly colored Deccani-type trees with tinted edges.
  • A unique depiction of a tall woman communicating with a bird.

Additional Concepts

1. Overview of Golconda School of Painting

• 1.1. Historical Context
  • Golconda was known for its wealth due to trade, especially in diamonds, and its gold artwork.
• 1.2. Popular Artworks
  • European recognition through Dutch merchants.
  • Use of large wall hangings.
  • Influence from Persian, Deccani, and Indian visual traditions.

2. Notable Paintings and Their Features

• 2.1. "Sultan Adil Shah II playing Tambura"
  • Depicts the sultan with a musical instrument.
  • Found in the National Museum, Prague.
• 2.2. "Composite Horse"
  • A surreal painting combining human figures to form a horse.
  • Deep brown and blue color scheme.
• 2.3. "Sultan Ibrahim Adil Shah II hawking"
  • Shows the sultan with a hawk amidst vibrant and energetic surroundings.
  • The mix of Persian influence and native inspiration.
• 2.4. "Ragini Pathamsika of Raga Hindola"
  • A musical-themed painting with women in a pavilion.
  • Vibrant use of red and green.
• 2.5. "Sultan Abdullah Qutb Shah"
  • Portrait of the ruler of Bijapur holding a sword.
  • The halo around the head indicates divinity.
• 2.6. "Hazrat Nizamuddin Auliya and Amir Khusrau"
  • Depicts the Sufi saint with his disciple playing music.
  • Highlights the cultural practice of qawwali.
• 2.7. "Chand Bibi playing Polo"
  • Illustrates the Queen of Bijapur playing equestrian polo.
  • Chand Bibi is known for resisting Mughal political advancements.

3. Unique Characteristics

• 3.1. Influence
  • Strong Persian influence combined with native Indian traditions.
• 3.2. Coloring
  • Use of gold, deep blues, and vibrant colors.
• 3.3. Themes
  • Often highlighted royals, music, and religious figures.
• 3.4. Style
  • Combination of symmetrical and Mughal influence.

Introduction

1. Introduction to Pahari Painting

• 1.1. Origin and Meaning
  • Pahari translates to 'hilly or mountainous'.
  • Centres of Pahari painting include Basohli, Guler, Kangra, etc., in the western Himalayas from the 17th to 19th century.
• 1.2. Evolution
  • Started with the bold Basohli style.
  • Evolved to the refined Kangra School via the Guler or pre-Kangra phase.

2. Challenges in Classification

• 2.1. Stylistic Overlaps
  • Pahari paintings have similarities with Mughal, Rajasthani, and Deccani styles.
• 2.2. Lack of Dated Materials
  • Few dated resources and inscriptions hinder clear categorization.

3. Influences and Origins

• 3.1. Mughal and Rajasthani Influences
  • Likely introduced through relationships with Rajasthani royal courts or examples of the Provincial Mughal style.
• 3.2. Basohli Style
  • Earliest recognized pictorial language in Pahari painting.

4. Role of the Seu Family

• 4.1. B. N. Goswamy's Perspective
  • Attributes Pahari style evolution to the artist family of Pandit Seu.
  • Emphasizes the family's role over regional influences.
• 4.2. Shift in Styles
  • The early 18th century saw a Basohli-like style.
  • The mid-18th century brought the pre-Kangra phase, leading to the Kangra style.

5. Possible Causes of Stylistic Shifts

• 5.1. Introduction of New Painting Styles
  • Paintings, possibly introduced by rulers, traders, or artists, influenced local Pahari art.
• 5.2. Mughal Atelier Influence
  • While some believe Mughal artists directly influenced Pahari art, others, like Goswamy, argue it was the naturalism in these paintings that attracted Pahari artists.

6. Characteristics of New Style

• 6.1. Naturalism
  • Became a central theme in the evolving style.
• 6.2. Themes and Prototypes
  • Included daily routines, royal occasions, and a new idealized female form.

Basohli School

1. Basohli School of Painting

• 1.1. Origin
  • Located in the hill states.
  • The first remarkable works were seen during the reign of Kirpal Pal (1678-1695).
• 1.2. Characteristics
  • Strong use of primary colors and warm yellows.
  • Unique representation of pearls using raised white paint.
  • Use of shiny green beetle wings to simulate emerald jewelry.
• 1.3. Influences
  • Shares aesthetics with the Chaurpanchashika group of Western India.

2. Popular Themes and Paintings

• 2.1. Rasamanjari
  • A series by Devida for Kirpal Pal in 1694-95.
• 2.2. Other Themes
  • Bhagvata Purana, Ragamala, portraits of royalty and court life.

3. Evolution and Spread

• 3.1. Guler-Kangra Phase (1690s-1730s)
  • Marked experimentation led to the Kangra style.
• 3.2. Geographical Spread
  • From Basohli to other hill states: Mankot, Nurpur, Kullu, Mandi, Bilaspur, Chamba, Guler, and Kangra.

4. Depictions from the Ramayana

• 4.1. Rama's Exile
  • Rama gave away his possessions before leaving Ayodhya.
• 4.2. Rama with Sage Vishvamitra
  • Accompanying the sage to defeat demons in the forest.
• 4.3. Artistic Features
  • Diverse character expressions, and fine detailing in garments, jewelry, and weapons.
  • The fragmented portrayal of animals, suggests mystery and danger.

5. Significance and Sensitivity

• Artistry in Basohli paintings goes beyond mere depiction, capturing emotions, situations, and the environment in a nuanced manner.

Guler School

1. Guler School Overview

• 1.1. Origin
  • Transformation from Basohli style in the first quarter of the 18th century.
  • Initiated in Guler under Raja Govardhan Chand (1744–1773).
• 1.2. Characteristics
  • The transition from the bold vitality of Basohli to a more subdued and elegant style.
  • Introduction of the Guler–Kangra Kalam around 1730–40.

2. Key Artists

• 2.1. Pandit Seu and Sons
  • Pandit Seu and his sons Manak and Nainsukh were pivotal in developing the Guler style.
  • Nainsukh became the court painter for Raja Balwant Singh of Jasrota.
• 2.2. Manak
  • Painted a set of Gita Govinda in 1730, blending elements of Basohli.
• 2.3. Nainsukh
  • Known for unique visual records of his patron Raja Balwant Singh's life.
  • Emphasized individual portraiture with pastel shades and wide expanses of white or grey.
• 2.4. Descendants
  • Khushala, Fattu, and Gaudhu, sons of Manaku and Nainsukh, continued the artistic tradition.

3. Patrons and Development

• 3.1. Early Guler Tradition
  • Evidence of paintings during the reign of Dalip Singh (1695–1743) and Bishan Singh.
• 3.2. Ascendancy of Govardhan Chand
  • Witnessed a shift in painting style during his reign.
• 3.3. Prakash Chand
  • Successor of Govardhan Chand shared a passion for art and patronized the descendants of Manaku and Nainsukh.

Kangra School

1. Kangra School Overview

• 1.1. Patronage
  • Flourished under Raja Sansar Chand (1775–1823).
  • Sansar Chand took in artists from Guler after Prakash Chand's financial troubles.
• 1.2. Historical Context
  • Kangra rulers belonged to the Katoch dynasty.
  • Kangra was under Mughal rule until the 17th century.
  • Raja Ghamand Chand regained territories, built Tira Sujanpur and supported artists.

2. Characteristics

• 2.1. Style
  • Poetic, lyrical, and marked by serene beauty and delicate execution.
  • Notable for the portrayal of the female face.
• 2.2. Themes
  • Bhagvata Purana, Gita Govinda, Nala Damayanti, Bihari Satsai, Ragamala, Baramasa.
  • Visual records of Sansar Chand's life and activities.

3. Artists and Patrons

• 3.1. Fattu, Purkhu, Khushala
  • Significant painters of the Kangra style.
• 3.2. Sansar Chand's Reign
  • Major production of paintings.
  • Kangra style spread to various regions.
  • Work quality declined after Gurkhas besieged Kangra.

4. Notable Paintings

• 4.1. Bhagvata Purana Paintings
  • Highlighted naturalism and portrayed dramatic scenes.
• 4.2. Rasa Panchdhyayi Series
  • Showed gopis recalling and enacting Krishna's feats.
• 4.3. Abhisarika
  • The theme of a woman braving obstacles to meet her lover.
• 4.4. Baramasa Paintings
  • Illustrated modes of love for each month of the year.

5. Classification and Other Centers

• 5.1. Basohli, Guler, Kangra Styles
  • These are indicative centers of the painting styles.
• 5.2. Specific Characteristics of Centers
  • Kullu: Distinctive style with wide open eyes and use of grey and terracotta red.
  • Nurpur: Mixture of Basohli vibrant colors and dainty Kangra figures.
  • Mandi: Focused on Vishnu and Shiva themes.
  • Garhwal: Influenced by the Kangra style; associated with artist Molaram.

Additional Concepts

1. Paintings & Their Descriptions

• 1.1. "Krishna steals butter, Bhagvata Purana, 1750"
  • Location: N. C. Mehta Collection, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India.
• 1.2. "Rama and Sita in the forest, Kangra, 1780"
  • Location: Douglas Barrett Collection, UK.
• 1.3. "Rasamanjari, Basohli, 1720"
  • Location: British Museum, London, UK.
• 1.4. "Rama gives away his possessions, Ayodhya Kanda, Shangri Ramayana, 1690–1700"
  • Location: Los Angeles County Museum of Art, USA.
• 1.5. "Rama and Lakshmana following sage Vishvamitra to the forest, Bala Kanda, Shangri Ramayana 1680–1688"
  • Location: Raja Raghbir Singh Collection, Shangri, Kullu Valley, India.
• 1.6. "Balwant Singh in prayer, Nainsukh, 1750"
  • Location: Victoria and Albert Museum, London, UK.
• 1.7. "Krishna embracing gopis, Gita Govinda, Guler, 1760–1765"
  • Location: N. C. Mehta Collection, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India.
• 1.8. "Kaliya Mardana, Bhagvata Purana, Kangra, 1785"
  • Location: National Museum, New Delhi, India.
• 1.9. "Krishna playing Holi with gopis, Kangra, 1800"
  • Location: National Museum, New Delhi, India.
• 1.10. "Re-enacting Krishna’s deeds, Bhagvata Purana, Guler–Kangra, India, 1780–85"
  • Location: Private Collection.

2. Artists & Their Influence

• 2.1. Pandit Seu and His Sons (Manak and Nainsukh)
  • A huge influence in transitioning Pahari painting from Basohli to Kangra style.
• 2.2. Gita Govinda by Manaku
  • Describes the love between Radha and Krishna.
  • Radha's initial shyness and Krishna's eager anticipation.
  • Poetry references describe the deep love and the eventual union of Radha and Krishna.

3. Notable Paintings Detailed Description

• 3.1. Balwant Singh with Nainsukh
  • Depicts Balwant Singh observing a painting.
  • Nainsukh, the artist, possibly paints himself alongside his patron in a serene landscape.
• 3.2. Krishna Nanda, Yashoda, and Krishna
  • Illustrates a scene from Bhagvata Purana.
  • Nanda and his family move to Vrindavan to escape demons.
  • Detailed expressions, natural landscapes, and acute observation of characters.

Company Painting

1. Indian Art Before the British

• Traditional purposes include:
  • 1.1. Statues on temple walls.
  • 1.2. Miniature paintings illustrating manuscripts.
  • 1.3. Wall decorations on village mud houses.

2. Emergence of the Company School of Painting

• 2.1. Triggered by colonial rule in the eighteenth century.
• 2.2. English officers commissioned local artists for documentation and artistic reasons.
  • Aim: Understand local customs, flora, fauna, and locales.
• 2.3. Artists often migrated from places like:
  • Murshidabad, Lucknow, or Delhi.
• 2.4. Adaptation of traditional art:
  • 2.4.1. New focus on close observation (European influence).
  • 2.4.2. Shift from relying on memory and rule books.
• 2.5. Resulting style: Mix of traditional and European art.
  • Termed as Company School of Painting.
• 2.6. Popularity:
  • 2.6.1. Widely appreciated in India by the British.
  • 2.6.2. Albums of such paintings were in demand in Britain.

Raja Ravi Verma

1. Indian Art Before the British

• Traditional purposes include:
  • 1.1. Statues on temple walls.
  • 1.2. Miniature paintings illustrating manuscripts.
  • 1.3. Wall decorations on village mud houses.

2. Emergence of the Company School of Painting

• 2.1. Triggered by colonial rule in the eighteenth century.
• 2.2. English officers commissioned local artists for documentation and artistic reasons.
  • Aim: Understand local customs, flora, fauna, and locales.
• 2.3. Artists often migrated from places like:
  • Murshidabad, Lucknow, or Delhi.
• 2.4. Adaptation of traditional art:
  • 2.4.1. New focus on close observation (European influence).
  • 2.4.2. Shift from relying on memory and rule books.
• 2.5. Resulting style: Mix of traditional and European art.
  • Termed as Company School of Painting.
• 2.6. Popularity:
  • 2.6.1. Widely appreciated in India by the British.
  • 2.6.2. Albums of such paintings were in demand in Britain.

The Bengal School

1. Bengal School of Art

• 1.1. Origin: Calcutta; not restricted to Bengal.
• 1.2. Associated with nationalist (Swadeshi) movement.
• 1.3. Leaders: Abanindranath Tagore & E. B. Havell.
• 1.4. Objective: Create art that's Indian in style and subject matter.
• 1.5. Inspiration: Mughal and Pahari miniatures.

2. E. B. Havell & Abanindranath Tagore

• 2.1. Year 1896: Beginning of Indianized art education.
• 2.2. Established in Government Art School, Calcutta.
• 2.3. Curriculum: Indian art techniques and themes.
• 2.4. Abanindranath's "Journey’s End": Fusion of Mughal, and Pahari styles.
• 2.5. Journal: Indian Society of Oriental Art.

3. Shantiniketan & Early Modernism

• 3.1. Nandalal Bose: Head of Kala Bhavana's painting department.
• 3.2. Kala Bhavana: Part of Visva-Bharati University by Rabindranath Tagore.
• 3.3. Nandalal's Vision: Fusion of Indian style, and folk art.
• 3.4. "Haripura Posters" by Bose: Depicting rural India for Congress session, 1937.
• 3.5. Kala Bhavana: Trained artists to spread nationalist vision.

4. Notable Artists & Styles

• 4.1. Jamini Roy: Adopted folk painting style.
• 4.2. Objective: Reach the wider public with themes of rural life.
• 4.3. British Raj's Art Policy: Split between European and Indian tastes.

Pan-Asianism and Modernism

1. Colonial Art Divide

• 1.1. Split: European academic style vs. Indian style.
• 1.2. Swadeshi movement surge post 1905 Bengal Partition.

2. Ananda Coomaraswamy & Pan-Asianism

• 2.1. Advocated Swadeshi in art.
• 2.2. Collaboration with Japanese nationalist, Kakuzo Okakura.
• 2.3. Goal: Unite India with Eastern nations against Western imperialism.
• 2.4. Introduction of Japanese wash painting technique in Shantiniketan.

3. Introduction of European Modern Art in India

• 3.1. 1922: Exhibition of works by Paul Klee, Kandinsky & other Bauhaus artists in Calcutta.
• 3.2. Shift: From academic realism to abstract art with geometric patterns.

4. Gaganendranath Tagore & Western Art Influence

• 4.1. Gaganendranath: Abanindranath Tagore's brother.
• 4.2. Incorporated modern Western art styles in paintings.
• 4.3. Adopted Cubist style; created geometric patterned interiors.
• 4.4. Made caricatures critiquing Bengalis emulating European lifestyle.

Different Concepts of Modernism: Western and Indian

1. Conceptual Divide in Modernism

• 1.1. Not based on race.
• 1.2. Anglicists vs. Orientalists.

2. Benoy Sarkar's Viewpoint

• 2.1. Sided with Anglicists.
• 2.2. Viewed European modernism as genuine.
• 2.3. Considered Bengal School of Art as regressive.

3. E. B. Havell's Perspective

• 3.1. Advocated for a return to native art for authentic modern Indian art.
• 3.2. Collaborated with Abanindranath Tagore.

4. Amrita Sher-Gil's Contribution

• 4.1. Merged Western style (Bauhaus influence) with Indian scenes.

5. Modern Art in India: A Collision

• 5.1. Result of conflict between colonialism and nationalism.
• 5.2. Colonialism: Introduced new art institutions (schools, galleries, magazines).
• 5.3. Nationalist artists: Embraced these changes but asserted an Indian or Asian identity.

6. Legacy of Modern Indian Art

• 6.1. Oscillation between internationalism (Western influences) and indigeneity (own legacy and tradition).

Additional Concepts

1. Ghulam Ali Khan

• 1.1. Company Painting (1800-1825)
• 1.2. Depicts: Group of Courtesans
• 1.3. Location: San Diego Museum of Art

2. Nandalal Bose's "Tiller of the Soil"

• 2.1. Created in 1938 for the Haripura Congress
• 2.2. Theme: Farmer ploughing, village life essence
• 2.3. Style: Folk art practice, influenced by patios
• 2.4. Reflects: Gandhi's idea of the village & Ajanta's inspirations

3. Kshitindranath Majumdar's "Rasa-Lila"

• 3.1. Watercolour; wash technique
• 3.2. Theme: Divine life of Sri Krishna
• 3.3. Stylistic features: Rustic figures, delicate colors, Bhakti Marga influence

4. Abdul Rehman Chughtai's "Radhika"

• 4.1. Technique: Wash and tempera
• 4.2. Theme: Radhika in a state of trance
• 4.3. Influence: Mughal manuscripts, old Persian paintings, Asian art masters

5. Gaganendranath Tagore's "City in the Night"

• 5.1. Watercolour (1922); Cubist style
• 5.2. Theme: Imaginary cities like Dwarka, Swarnapuri
• 5.3. Features: Overlapping planes, artificial lighting, theatrical references

6. Raja Ravi Varma's "Rama Vanquishing the Pride of the Ocean"

• 6.1. Theme: Puranic; Rama confronting the ocean
• 6.2. Technique: Oil painting; Lithographic reproduction
• 6.3. Depicts: Major moments from Ramayana

7. Jamini Roy's "Woman with Child"

• 7.1. Gouache painting (1940)
• 7.2. Theme: Mother and child in a folk style
• 7.3. Influence: Folk painting, terracotta reliefs, pat paintings

8. Abanindranath Tagore's "Journey’s End"

• 8.1. Watercolour (1913)
• 8.2. Theme: End of a journey symbolized by a collapsed camel
• 8.3. Technique: Wash painting; symbolic aesthetics

Introduction

1. Fine Arts and Colonial Perception

• 1.1. The British viewed fine arts as European.
• 1.2. Art schools in Lahore, Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras by late 19th century.
• 1.3. Promoted traditional crafts and art with Victorian tastes.

2. Bengal School of Art & Kala Bhavana

• 2.1. Reaction against colonial bias; led by Abanindranath Tagore and E.B. Havell.
• 2.2. Kala Bhavana, India's first nationalist art school, was established in 1919.
• 2.3. Part of Visva-Bharati University in Shantiniketan.

3. Global Influence and Art Trends

• 3.1. WWI brought political turmoil; modern European art entered India.
• 3.2. Gaganendranath & Rabindranath Tagore aware of Cubism and Expressionism.
• 3.3. Art can create its own world with forms, lines, and colors.

4. Gaganendranath Tagore's Art

• 4.1. Used Cubism for his unique style.
• 4.2. Differed from Picasso; painted mysterious halls/rooms.

5. Rabindranath Tagore's Visual Art

• 5.1. Started art late in life; created unique calligraphic style.
• 5.2. Limited palette; differed from Bengal School.

6. Nandalal Bose and Students

• 6.1. Joined Kala Bhavana in 1921-1922; trained under Abanindranath.
• 6.2. Encouraged exploration in art; students like Benode Behari Mukherjee and Ramkinker Baij.

7. Benode Behari Mukherjee and Ramkinker Baij

• 7.1. Focused on the environment, Santhal tribe, and literary sources.
• 7.2. Mukherjee painted medieval saints, and Baij celebrated nature.

8. Jamini Roy's Artistic Shift

• 8.1. Rejected academic art; influenced by Picasso and Paul Klee.
• 8.2. Used simple colors and made them from vegetables/minerals.
• 8.3. Unique style; differed from Raja Ravi Varma and Bengal School.

9. Amrita Sher-Gil

• 9.1. Half Hungarian, half Indian; trained in Paris.
• 9.2. Assimilated Indian art traditions with European modernism.

Modern Ideologies and Political Art in India

1. Contextual Background

• 1.1. WW II's impact on India.
• 1.2. Bengal famine outbreak due to war effects.
• 1.3. Massive rural migration to cities.

2. Emergence of the Calcutta Group (1943)

• 2.1. Led by Prodosh Das Gupta, a sculptor.
• 2.2. Members: Nirode Mazumdar, Paritosh Sen, Gopal Ghose, Rathin Moitra.
• 2.3. Philosophy: Universal art, free from past values.
• 2.4. Critique: Bengal School was too sentimental & rooted in the past.
• 2.5. Aimed for contemporary relevance in art.

3. Artistic Evolution

• 3.1. Simplified visual expression, focused on core elements.
• 3.2. Emphasized elements, materials, surfaces, forms, colors, etc.
• 3.3. P. V. Janakiram - South Indian sculptor who creatively used metal sheets.

4. Influence of Socialism and Marxism

• 4.1. Growing poverty attracted artists to socialism, particularly Marxism.
• 4.2. Marxism's philosophy questioned societal class differences.
• 4.3. Artists sought to highlight societal issues through art.

5. Printmaking: A Medium of Expression

• 5.1. Chittoprasad and Somnath Hore used printmaking for social issues.
• 5.2. Printmaking allows mass production & wider reach.
• 5.3. Chittoprasad depicted the poor's plight; commissioned by the Communist Party for Bengal famine sketches.
• 5.4. "Hungry Bengal" pamphlets showcased his work, irking the British.

The Progressive Artists’ Group of Bombay and the Multifaceted Indian Art

1. Contextual Setting

• 1.1. Post-independence desire for artistic freedom.

2. The Progressive Artists’ Group (1946, Bombay)

• 2.1. Formation & Aim: Challenge prevailing art school conventions.
• 2.2. Members:
  • Francis Newton Souza (leader)
  • M. F. Husain
  • K. H. Ara
  • S. A. Bakre
  • H. A. Gade
  • S. H. Raza

3. Notable Artists & Their Works

• 3.1. Francis Newton Souza:
  • Focused on women as subjects.
  • Painted exaggerated nudes.
  • Challenged traditional beauty standards.
• 3.2. M. F. Husain:
  • Merged Western expressionist techniques with Indian themes.
  • Used bright Indian colors.
  • Inspired by Indian mythology, religious sources, miniatures, crafts, and folk toys.
  • The representative figure for Indian modern art internationally.
  • Paintings like "Mother Teresa" showcase his adaptability in merging modern art with Indian themes.

Abstraction - A New Trend

1. Abstraction in Indian Art

• 1.1. Move towards abstraction, away from figurative representation.
• 1.2. Landscape was a favorite theme, with varied color palettes.
• 1.3. Artists drew inspiration from Indian motifs, mandala designs, and Bindu symbolism.

2. Key Artists and Their Contributions

• 2.1. S.H. Raza:
  • Shifted towards abstraction.
  • Integrated Indian elements like mandala and Bindu.
• 2.2. Gaitonde:
  • Pursued abstraction, balancing between abstraction and figurative.
• 2.3. K. C. S. Paniker (South India):
  • Pioneer of abstraction.
  • Used Tamil and Sanskrit scripts, and rural crafts.
  • Argued for a long history of abstraction in India.

3. Internationalism vs Indigenous

• 3.1. Tension grew by the late 1970s.
• 3.2. Desire to create a distinct Indian identity in modern art.
• 3.3. Neo-Tantric art emerged, with Indianized abstraction using traditional meditation designs.

4. Eclecticism in Modern Indian Art

• 4.1. Artists borrowed ideas from various sources.
• 4.2. Notable artists: Ram Kumar, Satish Gujral, A. Ramachandran, Meera Mukherjee.

5. Artist Groups and Manifestos

• 5.1. Bombay Progressive Artist’s Group:
  • Artists began writing manifestos.
• 5.2. Group 1890 (1963, led by J. Swaminathan):
  • Emphasized the importance of texture and surface in art.
  • Members included Gulam Mohammed Sheikh, Jyoti Bhatt, Ambadas, and Jeram Patel.
• 5.3. Cholamandalam School's influence on the next generation.

Tracing the Modern Indian Art

1. Introduction to Modern Indian Art

• 1.1. Modern art in India was influenced by the West, but significantly different.
• 1.2. Modernism in India emerged during the British colonial period.
• 1.3. Modern art in the West arose from a rejection of academic realism.

2. Role of Modernity and Colonialism

• 2.1. Modernity and colonialism in India were interconnected.
• 2.2. Emergence of cultural nationalism after the Indian Revolt of 1857.
• 2.3. Concept of swadeshi in art: Not mere imitation but selective adaptation.

3. Nationalism in Art

• 3.1. Bengal School's rise under Abanindranath Tagore in the late 19th century.
• 3.2. Kala Bhavana in Shantiniketan as a subsequent evolution.

4. Artistic Influences

• 4.1. Inspiration from past traditions: Ajanta frescoes, Mughal, Rajasthani, and Pahari miniatures.
• 4.2. Distinct modern attitude in Indian art seen in works of:
  • Gagendranath Tagore
  • Rabindranath Tagore
  • Jamini Roy
  • Amrita Sher-Gil
  • Ramkinker Baij
  • Benode Behari Mukherjee

5. Overview

• Modern art in India can't be understood merely as an imitation of the West. It was a careful selection process by Indian artists, drawing both from global influences and rich indigenous traditions.

The New Figurative Art and Modern Art from the 1980s

1. Modern Art Trends Post-1970s

• 1.1. Shift towards recognizable figures and stories.
• 1.2. Influenced by events like the Indo-Pakistan war and the birth of Bangladesh.

2. Artists and Their Social Concerns

• 2.1. K. G. Subramanyan, Gulam Mohammed Sheikh, Bhupen Khakar: Emphasis on storytelling.
• 2.2. Jogen Chowdhury, Bikash Bhattacharjee, Ganesh Pyne: Painted social issues.
• 2.3. Inspiration from miniature paintings, folk arts, and popular forms.

3. Art Reflecting Social Inequality

• 3.1. Artists like Jyoti Bhatt, Laxma Goud, and Anupam Sud focused on conflicts in society.
• 3.2. Arpita Singh, Nalini Malani, Sudhir Patwardhan highlighted urban issues.

4. Baroda Art School in the 1980s

• 4.1. Artists became politically and socially aware.
• 4.2. Combination of fact with fiction, autobiography with fantasy.
• 4.3. Gulam Mohammed Sheikh: Fusion of local scenes with historical styles.
• 4.4. K. G. Subramanyan: Emphasis on public art; murals, large-scale sculptures.

5. Public View of Art

• 5.1. Exhibition ‘Place for People’ in 1981: A move towards public art.
• 5.2. Role of art critics like Geeta Kapur became pivotal.

6. Bhupen Khakhar & Eclectic Interest

• 6.1. Painted everyday people and addressed queer experiences.
• 6.2. Celebration of popular art forms, from trucks to autorickshaws.

7. Younger Painters in Mumbai

• 7.1. Inspired by popular images: calendars, ads, film hoardings.
• 7.2. Experimental techniques: painting in the style of photographs.

New Media Art: from the 1990s

1. Impact of 1990s Liberalisation

• 1.1. Economic growth and IT advancements in cities.
• 1.2. Concurrent social and political unrest.

2. Shift in Artistic Mediums

• 2.1. Traditional easel painting and sculpture began losing prominence.
• 2.2. Rise in popularity of video and photography due to their mass reach.

3. Installation Art

• 3.1. Merges painting, sculpture, photography, video, and television.
• 3.2. Offers an immersive multisensory experience.
• 3.3. Pioneers: Nalini Malani (Mumbai) and Vivan Sundaram (Delhi).

4. Evolution of Photography in Art

• 4.1. New technique: ‘photorealism’.
• 4.2. Used by artists like Atul Dodiya and T. V. Santosh.
• 4.3. Addressed themes like communal violence and urban growth.

5. Documentary Aspect of Photography

• 5.1. Artists: Sheba Chachi, Ravi Agarwal, Atul Bhalla.
• 5.2. Focused on marginalized individuals and ecological concerns.

6. The Nature of Contemporary Art

• 6.1. Continuously evolving and reliant on technology.
• 6.2. Significant role of art galleries, both private and public.
• 6.3. Digital art, catalogs, and social media influence art narratives.

7. Call to Action for Visual Arts Students

• 7.1. Explore and understand local artists and their works.
• 7.2. Visit art galleries and document artistic contributions.

Additional Concepts

1. Overview

• 1.1. Modern Indian art predominantly drew inspiration from rural India, with urban life rarely depicted.
• 1.2. The belief: real India resides in villages.

2. Notable Artworks & Artists

• 2.1. Gaganendranath Tagore
  • Art: Cubist City (1925)
  • Location: Victoria Memorial Hall, Kolkata
• 2.2. Rabindranath Tagore
  • Art: Doodle (1920)
  • Location: Visva-Bharati University, Shantiniketan
• 2.3. Jamini Roy
  • Art: Black Horse (1940)
  • Location: NGMA, New Delhi
• 2.4. Chittoprasad
  • Art: Hungry Bengal (1943)
  • Location: Delhi Art Gallery, New Delhi

3. Artists' Reflections on Realities & Traditions

• 3.1. M. F. Husain
  • Art: Mother Teresa (1980s)
  • Interpretation: Fusion of European art and modernism.
• 3.2. Amrita Sher-Gil
  • Art: Haldi Grinder (1940)
  • Interpretation: Melding European modern art with Indian traditions.
• 3.3. K. G. Subramanyan
  • Art: Fairy Tales from Purvapalli (1986)
  • Interpretation: Imaginary landscapes blending nature with human elements.

4. Techniques & Innovations

• 4.1. Krishna Reddy
  • Art: Whirlpool (1963)
  • Technique: Viscosity printing.
• 4.2. Somnath Hore
  • Art: Children (1958)
  • Theme: Suffering caused by the Bengal Famine of 1943.
• 4.3. Jyoti Bhatt
  • Art: Devi (1970)
  • Interpretation: Mix of folk traditions and modernism.

5. Sculptures and Monumental Artworks

• 5.1. Debi Prasad Roy Chowdhury
  • Art: Triumph of Labour (1959)
  • Location: Marina Beach, Chennai
• 5.2. Ramkinker Baij
  • Art: Santhal Family (1937)
  • Location: Kala Bhavana, Shantiniketan
• 5.3. Amarnath Sahgal
  • Art: Cries Un-heard (1958)
  • Theme: Plight of vulnerable families.
• 5.4. P. V. Janakiram
  • Art: Ganesha (1970)
  • Interpretation: Blend of traditional imagery and modernism.
• 5.5. Mrinalini Mukherjee
  • Art: Vanshri (1994)
  • Medium: Hemp-fibre.
  • Interpretation: Monumental form representing natural divinity.

Introduction

• 1.1. India's rich tradition of art forms extends beyond urban centers, reaching forests, deserts, mountains, and villages.
• 1.2. While historical art has been linked to specific periods or dynasties, the common people have also been creative.

2. Art of Common People

• 2.1. Common folks have always been deeply artistic, with or without formal education.
• 2.2. Questions arise about their contributions before coming to cities or their current creations in remote areas.

3. Indigenous Knowledge and Artistic Legacy

• 3.1. India boasts a vast reservoir of indigenous knowledge passed down through generations.
• 3.2. Historically, certain art forms were termed minor arts, folk art, tribal art, crafts, etc.
• 3.3. Prehistoric cave paintings, pottery, terracotta, and bronze works from the Indus period are a testament to the artistic prowess of ancient Indians.

4. Artistic Communities and Their Work

• 4.1. Throughout history, references to artistic communities have been abundant.
• 4.2. These communities produced pots, dresses, jewelry, sculptures, and wall and floor decorations.
• 4.3. Their creations were deeply symbolic, with specific motifs, materials, and methods of making.
• 4.4. The line between folk art and crafts is blurred, as both involve creativity, instinct, necessity, and aesthetics.

5. Modern Perspective & Revival

• 5.1. 19th and 20th centuries saw traditional art forms inspire modern artists in India and the West.
• 5.2. Post-Independence India witnessed a revival of the handicraft industry, organizing it for commercial production.
• 5.3. With the formation of States and Union Territories, unique art forms and products were showcased in State emporia.

6. Importance of Indian Art & Craft Traditions

• 6.1. Represents tangible heritage with a history spanning over five millennia.
• 6.2. While many art and craft forms are known, they often carry religious, ritualistic, utilitarian, and decorative significance.
• 6.3. These traditions are intertwined with daily practices, both on a household and commercial scale.

Painting Traditions

1. Introduction to Painting Traditions

• 1.1. India boasts a vast array of regional painting traditions, from Madhubani in Bihar to Pata Chitra in Bengal.

2. Mithila (Madhubani) Painting

• 2.1. Originates from Mithila in Bihar, also known as Madhubani after the district.
• 2.2. Traditionally painted by women on mud house walls for weddings and other ceremonies.
• 2.3. Themes: Ramayana, Bhagvata Purana, daily life, nature, and deities.
• 2.4. Made with bamboo twigs and natural colors from plants and minerals.

3. Warli Painting

• 3.1. Practiced by the Warli community in Northern Maharashtra.
• 3.2. Central theme: The mother goddess, Palaghat, symbolizes fertility.
• 3.3. Depicts daily life, rituals, nature, and urban influences.
• 3.4. Painted with rice flour on earth-colored walls.

4. Gond Painting

• 4.1. From the Gonds of Madhya Pradesh, traditionally nature worshippers.
• 4.2. Themes: Nature, animals, and episodes from Hindu epics.
• 4.3. Vivid geometric and colorful depictions.

5. Pithoro Painting

• 5.1. Created by Rathva Bhils in Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh.
• 5.2. Large wall paintings representing deities as horse riders, illustrate the cosmography of the Rathvas.

6. Pata Painting

• 6.1. Practiced in Gujarat, Rajasthan, Bengal, and Odisha. Known variably as Pata, Pachedi, and Phad.
• 6.2. Bengal Pata: Storytelling art, with patuas (performers) displaying paintings and singing narratives.
• 6.3. Puri Pata: From the temple city of Puri in Odisha, depicting the deities and rituals associated with the Jagannath temple.
• 6.4. Techniques: Painting on cloth or palm leaf, using organic colors.

7. Phads of Rajasthan

• 7.1. Long horizontal cloth scrolls, celebrating pastoral deities.
• 7.2. Themes: Tales of cattle heroes (bhomias) protecting the community's cattle.
• 7.3. Displayed by bhopas (bards) in night-long storytelling performances.
• 7.4. Painted by 'Joshis', traditionally court artists specializing in miniature paintings.

Sculptural Traditions

1. Sculptural Traditions Overview

• 1.1. Encompasses diverse mediums like terracotta, metal, and stone.
• 1.2. Found throughout India with unique regional variations.

2. Dhokra Casting

• 2.1. Prominent metal craft in Bastar (Chhattisgarh), parts of Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, and Midnapore (West Bengal).
• 2.2. Uses the lost wax or cire perdue technique for bronze casting.
• 2.3. Craftsmen, known as ghadwa, traditionally created utensils, jewelry, and votive offerings.
• 2.4. Process:
  • 2.4.1. Core figure created from black soil mixed with rice husk.
  • 2.4.2. Covered with layers of clay and cow dung.
  • 2.4.3. Resin from saal tree used to create decorative details.
  • 2.4.4. Furnace firing using saal wood or coal.
  • 2.4.5. Metal melted and poured into molds, replacing the evaporated resin.

3. Terracotta Sculptures

• 3.1. Widely prevalent, made from local clay (often from riverbanks or ponds).
• 3.2. Usually made by potters and baked for durability.
• 3.3. Forms include images of deities, animals, birds, and insects.
• 3.4. Found across India, with regional specialties in Manipur, Assam, Kuchchha, Northern Hills, Tamil Nadu, Gangetic Plains, and Central India.

Glossary

1. Artistic Styles & Movements

• 1.1. Academic realism
  • Originated in European academies.
  • Introduced in India during colonialism with art academies in Calcutta, Madras, and Lahore.
• 1.2. Abstraction & Abstract Art
  • Reducing to essential characteristics.
  • Exaggerates or simplifies real-world forms.
  • Linked with modernism.
• 1.3. Expressionism
  • Art conveys intense emotion.
  • Distorts reality for emotional impact.
• 1.4. Cubism
  • Associated with Picasso and Braque.
  • Inspired by African sculpture and Paul Cézanne.
  • Depicts objects from multiple viewpoints.
• 1.5. Modernism
  • The universal approach; challenges traditional norms.
  • Influenced global regions since the late 19th century.
• 1.6. Naturalism
  • Representation based on detailed accuracy.
• 1.7. Realism
  • Artistic movement from mid-19th century France.
• 1.8. Renaissance Art
  • Emerged in Italy around 1400.
  • Revived classical antiquity features.

2. Artistic Professions & Roles

• 1.1. Aesthete
  • Appreciates art and beauty.
• 1.2. Art Critic
  • Evaluates and critiques art. Reviews published in various mediums.
• 1.3. Curators
  • Keepers of cultural heritage institutions.
  • In contemporary art, strategize art displays.
• 1.4. Digital Artist
  • Uses digital technology in art production.

3. Artistic Techniques & Practices

• 1.1. Chiaroscuro
  • Treatment of light and shade in artworks.
• 1.2. Dhokra Casting
  • Bronze casting via the lost wax method.
  • Popular in Bastar, Chhattisgarh, and other regions.
• 1.3. Etching
  • Raised portions remain blank; crevices hold ink.
  • Engraving on metal plates.
• 1.4. Foreshortening
  • Portraying objects as closer than actual.
• 1.5. Installation Art
  • Combines various materials to transform the perception of space.
• 1.6. Linocut
  • Relief printing using linoleum.
• 1.7. Lithography
  • A technique using porous surfaces, often limestone.
• 1.8. Mural
  • Artwork directly on large surfaces like walls.
• 1.9. Sfumato
  • Gradual shading produces hazy forms.
• 1.10. Video Art
  • Uses kinetic images; emerged in the 1960s and 1970s.

4. Artistic Terminologies

• 1.1. Avant-Garde
  • Experimental or innovative art.
• 1.2. Bibliophile
  • A person who loves and collects books.
• 1.3. Colophon Page
  • Statement about a book's publication details.
• 1.4. Community Art
  • Art centered around community engagement.
• 1.5. Genre
  • Category or style of art, music, or literature.
• 1.6. Gouache
  • Opaque watercolor painting.
• 1.7. Illusionism
  • Artistic representation resembling real objects.
• 1.8. Kalam
  • Style of painting.
• 1.9. Physiognomy
  • A person's facial features or general appearance.