Part 3 - Socio-Cultural Anthropology

Paper 1 - Unit 9.5 - Racial Anthropology

Race → Introduction & Classification

• Introduction

  Race is a grouping of humans based on shared physical(morphological or bodily features) or social(socio cultural) qualities, into different categories which are viewed as different by the society.

  For the first time the term race was used to refer speakers of same languages, which later transformed into a biological concept i.e Populations having matching bodily features (Phenotypic Features)

  Present day scholars regard the term race as a social construct or an identity, assigned by the rules of the society.

  Hootan defined race as a great division of humans, the members of which although individually varying, yet characterised as a group, by certain common Bodily & Metrical Features (measurements) which have been derived from a common descent

• Classification of Races by Earnest Hootan

  Hootan Classified Races into two categories

  1. Primary Races

     Formed by Differentiation caused by geographical & reproductive isolation, mutations, environmental factors, natural selection etc

  2. Secondary Races

     Hootan considered secondary races as formed by blending of two or more primary races when some characters are picked up by Genes and some are lost.

     This is Further Aggravated by Mutations and Environmental Factors

  3. Thus it can be said that “Race is a Dynamic Group, Instead of a Static One”

• Factors Responsible for the formation of Races

  1. Mutation
  2. Natural Selection
  3. Geographical Isolation
  4. Reproductive Isolation
  5. Selective Breeding, Inbreeding & Population Mixture
  6. Genetic Drift (Sewall-Wright Effect)

• Different Criteria for Racial Classification

  • 1 Colour of Skin - Cuvier

    1. Most Striking Superficial Characteristics of human division. Three Colours were almost universally accepted
    2. Cuvier Divided, Human Groups into 3 different races based on skin colour.
    3. The Types of which are - LSM
       1. White Complexion Leucoderms Caucasoids
       2. Yellowish Complexion Scanthoderms Mongoloids
       3. Black Complexion Melanoderms Negroids
       4. Its a very defective method of judging human variations because there can be many overlapping shades amongst the populations
       5. due to
          1. genetic mutations
          2. hereditary factors
          3. environmental factors

  • 2 Colour and Texture of Hair - Hoodan

    Hair may be straight, curly, wavy, frizzy or wooly.

    1. Hoodan Classified Hair Texture into 3 Prominent Categories
    2. The Types of which are
       1. Ulotrichus Frizzy or Wooly Hair Ex : Bushmen Nigros, Melanasain, Andaman Islanders etc
       2. Sinotrichus Wavy Hair Ex : Caucasians etc
       3. Leotrichus More or Less Straight Hair Ex : Yellowish Skinned Asians, Mongoloids, Eskimos etc

  • 3 Colour and Shapes of Eyes - Dr Beddoe

    Dr Beddoe was the first one to consider colour & shape of eyes as a criteria for racial classification with Hair & Skin Colour

    1. The Greatest Majority of Population of eye colour has shades of black and brown. Beddoe considered black and brown variation as the most common eye colour

       There can be some regional variation like Nordics in Northern Europe having blue coloration of eyes

    2. another variation can be shape of eye, based on opening

       In General, there are wide open eyes in maximum populations of the world, but in yellowish skinned asians, people living in sub polar areas, There is narrow opening of the eye.

       Due to Epicanthic Eye fold, typically referred as mongoloid eye

  • 4 Blood Groups - Landstenier

    ABO Blood Group System in Humans by Landsteiner

    where A & B are dominant Blood Groups & O is the recessive one, in its expression.

    All the types of blood groups are scattered in all population in the world, with some regional variations

    ABO Blood Group System - Link to Core Physical Anthro

  • 5 Height / Stature - Topinard

    Topinard Gave Classification of people based on height or stature as

    1. Tall Stature > 170 cm
    2. Above Average > 165-170 cm
    3. Average > 160-150 cm
    4. Below Average < 160 cm
    5. Short Stature < 156 cm

    The Sample Size, was only for Adult Males & was criticised for being very restrictive in sample size

  • 6 Somatotypes - Heath & Carter

    Link to Core Physical Anthro Prominent Method is Heath & Carter

    1. Ectomorph
    2. Mesomorph
    3. Endomorph

  ---

  Other than these biological criteria, many anthropologists ethnographers used

  1. Nasal Index
  2. Cephalic Index
  3. Size & Shape of Jaws

  as a criteria to classify the races

  ---

  These Classification were criticised by various ethnographers & anthropologist for

  1. Being Restrictive in sample size
  2. Based on geography, gender & age of Individuals

• Weiner’s 3 Race Classification of Population based in Physical Features

  Link to Summary Sheet

  • 1 Caucasoids (12)

    1. Mediterranean

       India, Spain, Portugal, Italy France, Northern Africa, Iran, Afghanistan, India

       and some scattered populations in middle east.

    2. Nordics

       Scandinavian Countries including Northern France, Northern Germany, Belgium etc

    3. Dinarics

       Australia, New Zealand Region & Scattered Population South Asia

    4. Armenoids

       Part of Ukraine, Iran, Iraq, Turkey, Syria

    5. Lapps / Lappi

       Sub Arctic Region, Northern Norway, Greenland, North Canada, Alaska

    6. Dravidians

       Deccan Plateau India, Some Population in Bangladesh Sri Lanka

    7. Pre Dravidians (Veddoid)

       Found in Sri Lanka, Andaman Islands & Near By Indian Islands of Indonesia

    ---

    Other than these prominent sub races of caucasians

    Extra Don’t Try to Mug Up

    1. Eastern Baltics
    2. Ainus of Japan
    3. Keltics - People of Scotland and Whales etc

    can also be categorised

    ---

    Historically, the term has been used to describe populations in these mentioned parts of the world based primarily on skin tone. Now the term is used in broader context as a term representing a general physical type, scattered in different parts of the world including Europe, North Africa, Horn of Africa, Middle East, Parts of Central Asia and South Asia

  • 2 Negroids (2)

    • Summary

      

    Primarily 2 Different Sub Races of Negroids exists :

    • African Negros

      Mainly Scattered in African Continent Asia & Certain Scattered Islands in Indian Ocean.

      There can be True Nigro found in African Continent, South of Sahara Desert till the geographical extent of Kalahari Desert.

      Sub Races within African Negros can be

      Bantu’s

      Bushman

      Negritos - Andaman Islander (G/A, Jarawa, Sentinele etc)

    • Oceania Negros

      Found Mainly in

      1. Polynesian Islands of Pacific Ocean like
         1. Papua New Guinea
         2. Melanesia
         3. Trobriand Islanders
      2. There can be elements of Oceania Negros also

  • 3 Mongoloids (4)

    • Typically Characterised by
      1. Short Stature
      2. Yellowish Skin Coloration
      3. Epicanthic Eye Fold
    • Can be Classified into 4 Different Sub Races

      1. Classical or Central Mongoloids

         Parts of Central Asia - China, Mongolia, Tibet, Korea, Some Himalayan Belts in India

      2. Indo Malay Mongoloids

         Indonesia, Malaysia, South East Asian Countries, Philippines, Burma, North East India & Some Parts of Tibet

      3. Arctic Mongoloids

         Northern Fringes of North America (Alaska & Canada), Greenland

         Eskimos in these areas

         Yakuts of Northern Fringes of North America

      4. Amerindians (American Indians)

         Paleo Amerindians - Countries like Brazil, Chili

         Some Ab Origins of United States & Central America

Racism → Introduction & Classification

Rise & Persistence of Scientific Races

• Summary - Stephen Gould & George Morton

  1. Scientific Racism by Samuel George Morton

  2. Stephen Gould studied Mortons Scientific Racism & maintained that he was biased

     Within Blacks and Whites For Ex : He Compared Cranial Capacity of White Mails with Black Females. This is a Natural Difference

     Within White English Men For Ex : North American have better thinking capacity, as compared to Other American(Inca American - Souther Part of Mexico to Colombia)

• The Debate & Proposition

  Most Anthropologists consider Race as a Social Construct and Concept, & Not a Biological One

  Race in its application, that is Racism stigmatises certain individuals or populations as inferior and different.

  It reinforces the privileges of others, with a flawed notion of superior race → Ethnocentric Sentiments related to ones own Race

  There is no Evidence related to biologically distinct human beings or a sub species or a race of humans, which can be considered as superior or inferior

  Further, the most common classification criteria i.e skin colour is incredibly varied based on various factors and also determined by multiple genes.

  in 19th century Samuel Morton, attempted to prove that certain races are superior to others by measuring the brain size or cranial capacity or skull representing different groups like Blacks, Whites, American Indians, etc. Based on his study he concluded that whites are superior with more cranial capacity and intelligent as compared to others.

  Mortons Study was challenged by Stephen Gould, a Harvard Scholar in his book ”The Miss Measure of Man”

  Gould studied the same sample of skull used by Morton & he concluded that Morton was trying to confirm himself & fellow Americans bout the things they already knew or were accepted to them i.e whites are supreme race

  Gould Rejected the Mortons Sample Size on the grounds that :

  Reason 1 sample of black skulls was having more females and sample of white skulls was having more males.

  Reason 2 Also while studying the American Indians and Latin & Southern Americans small sized INCA Skulls were more included that the lage sized Iroquois

  When Gould measured the skulls he found that the average size of black male skulls was larger than that of average size of white male skulls

  With Advancement in technology and genomic research its very much accepted that, brain size or cranial capacity is having no scientific basis for intelligence of an individual.

  So the Ethnocentric View of Samuel Morton regarding superiority of white races was rejected by Stephen Gould and many further researchers

  Present Day anthropologist, no longer take the idea of Race seriously

• Race as a Biological Concept

  There are still many researchers and people who believe that they can scientifically prove superiority of certain races over others

  Much of these arguments, favour Eugenics → To Ensure Maximisation of Favourable Traits or Characters which are considered as supreme or desirable to promoting and legalising maximum generations/offsprings of individuals holding these characters

  In Simple Words, Eugenics is an attempt to distinguish between people possessing good and bad genes and to foster social political or religious legislations that would encourage those with good genes, to have more kids than those with the bad genes

  Concept of Eugenics was propagated by American geneticist Francis Galton. Eugenics was increasingly as unscientific and racially bias in 21st century

  Some recent attempts are there to revive the eugenics by providing some scientific basis behind racial superiority, like

  1. Bell Curve Theory of Richard Herrnstein and Murray
  2. Writings of American Psychologist Rushton

  Modern Day Anthropologists consider even, ethnicity being associated with concept of race and discipline of Anthropology, considers ethnicity connected with only historical and political set of identities, rather than any natural or superior/inferior distinction.

  Later Franz Boas (1912), through studies of Cephalic Index of Immigrants in USA, rejected the concept of race as a Static Identity, in his essay “Cranial Plasticity in Immigrant Americans”

  So race as a concept is considered invalid in modern day anthropology.

• Is Race still a valid concept ?

  • Three Arguments Against it.

    Race as a Biological Concept was supported with the arguments, with the basis with more occurrence of certain genes are holding those genes because of better adaptability and utilisation those characters.

    Biologist define Race as a Sub Species/Populations differing geographically, morphologically or genetically.

    There are certain valid arguments AGAINST race as a Biological Concept.

    1. It is Arbitrary and no scientific criteria is there, to justify that how many differences are required to specify a race.

    Also one on eye colour, another on blood group and one on stature.

    Modern Anthropologists do not accept this argument. 2. No Single Race has exclusive possession of any particular variant of any gene or genes 3. Vast Majority of Genetic Variation exists within the so called Racial Group

  • Lowenstein View

    Lowenstein demonstrated through sceintific findings that nearly 7 to 10 percent of human genetic variations, exists amongst the racial group.

    Roughly this much part of genome can be differentiated based on racial characters.

  • Franz Boas’s Study

    Debunking the Myth of Race, Franz Boas conducted a Scientific Study on more than 18,000 immigrant families in US. in this study the cephalic index and associated changes in two different generations demonstrated, that the adults and children had variations, may be at small scale but is significant enough that could be expressed mathematically

    European and African Parent of these children were having different Cephalic Index and the next generation born in us to these parents had different cephalic index.

    Hence, Race as a concept is not stable and rather dynamic which can be changed based on various factors

  • Conclusion

    Anthropologist consider Race as a Concept More of a Socio Cultural Nature, Human Groups or Populations enjoying historical privileges or dominance.

    Thus, Continuously trying insert false notions of biological differences, into the cultural nature of race.

    In Various ways, propagators of race as a biological concept, to retain there supremacy. They will try to support the unscientific arguments for justification of racial superiority.

    and Hence it can be said that race as a concept is not accepted by Modern Anthropology.

• UNESCO’s Declaration on Races

  1. Racism Causes Bloodshed and Differences in Society & Countries
  2. All Human Beings Belong to One Race - Homo Sapiens
  3. All Morphological & Anatomical Features are result of genetics and environment
  4. Race cannot be grouped based on nationality, religion, culture, languages etc
  5. Race doesn't play a role in classification of races. All Human beings are Equal and they deserve equal treatment
  6. UNESCO stressed upon the race crossing of population that is inter-breeding between two different human races, so that intermixing of different traits Acquired through Genetics & Heredity Acquired through Geography & environmental Factors
  7. Result of Race Crossing is formation of Mixed or Secondary Races with characters of both the parent races
  8. Hence, Race Crossing Proves that Race is a myth by helping in formation of new races. Leading to cultural exchange and intermixing.

Hereditary & Environmental Factors defining Racial Traits

• Probable Question

  What is the role of environment and hereditary (genetic) factors in formation of Races ?

• Hereditary Factors

  • Summary

    

  All Species Specific Characteristics are inherited, through hereditary or genetic mechanisms. The characters sustained by heredity determine the Race as,

  All Characters in Living Beings are controlled by Genes coming from the Parents.

  The Scientific basis behind hereditary inheritance was given by Austrian Geneticist Gregor Mendel, in the Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance

• Environmental Factors

  • Running Notes
    1. Cultural Factors
       1. Inbreeding - Preferential Marriages
    2. Nutritional Factors
       1. Malnourishment
    3. Geographical Factors (Climatic Factors)

       1. Gloger’s Rule

          • Summary

            Height Near Equator will be more and colour is dark

            Pigmented Population near Equator

       2. Allens Rule

          • Summary

            Extremities will be higher in hotter areas, for minimum heat retention and maximum heat dispersion

       3. Bergman’s Rule

  Another Crucial Factor along with hereditary factors influencing the characters and formation of races is environment.

  Environmental Factors comprises of :

  • Cultural Factors

    Certain Cultural Factors have a direct influence on the Gene Pool of population and hence eventually on the races.

    Examples are

    1. Cultural Practises of Endogamy
    2. Inbreeding
    3. Preferential Mating
    4. Cultural Taboos

    can lead to

    1. Accumulation
    2. Extinction

    of Specific Characters, which can be more prominent in certain races or populations.

  • Nutritional Factors

    Nutrition is a Prime Factor Determining Growth and Development of Human Body.

    Sometimes Geographical factors are not in favour of availability of nutritious food items, like olives or food etc.

    Also, Socio Cultural Elements like favour or disfavour in consumption of certain nutritious food.

    Like Taboos related to consumption of milk, like Khasi Tribes in Meghalaya and some north eastern tribes

  • Geographical or Climatic Factors

    Climatic Factors can be explained based on three different principles

    • Gloger’s Rule

      At Equator, there is a trend of witnessing heavily pigmented population with long stature

      Opposite to that, Fair population with short stature can be found towards the poles.

    • Allen Rule

      Population Settled near the Equator, tend to have more protruding body parts and longer limbs than the individuals residing away from equator.

    • Bergman Rule

      Individual with comparatively lesser body size tend to be rounded in shape, found at the equatorial region while bulkier individuals are generally found away form the equator

      For Ex :

      1. Negroids Near Equator
      2. Mongoloids Near Pole
      3. Caucasoids in Between

    • Criticism of these Rules

      However these 3 rules are subject to criticism, because of occurrence of regional variation in different populations

• Conclusion for Hereditary & Environment Factors

  It can be concluded that, environment is capable of producing the genetic effects which can be selected by nature and thus would become hereditary

  Hence, Heredity provides equipment & environment to decide its way of use.

  So, both heredity and environment mutually reinforce, the existence of variations and characters in human populations. Significantly contributing in formation of races

Paper 1 - Unit 7.0 - Linguistic Anthropology

• Culture, Language and Communication

  • What is Language as a concept ?

    Language is a conventionally spoken or written symbol, utilising which human beings communicate with each other as members of society or social group or participants in a culture.

  • What is the Anthropological Context of Languages

    It is a separate domain of Linguistic Anthropology. Languages are not only means of communication for exchange of idea or thoughts, but also forges cultural ties, economic relationships, friendships etc.

  • What is the difference between speech and Language ?

    The difference between speech and language as highlighted by Saussure.

    Speech is biological process of production of sounds from a voice box or larynx.

    Certain Animals or Birds Like parrot or a one year old infant can have speech matching with adult humans, however there knowledge of language is not comprehensible (Acceptable in Social Context)

  • Is Language Necessarily a Verbal Mode of Communication ?

    Language is not necessarily, a verbal communication. It can be non verbal through gestures and sign languages

  • What is the definition of Language according to Henry Sweet

    In the words of Henry Sweet, Language is the Expression of Ideas by means of Speech Sounds combined into different words.

    The Words will combine into sentence and sentences express the speakers thought process.

  • What is the scope of Linguistic Anthropology

    Understanding Language as a socio cultural phenomenon is a concern of linguistic anthropology.

    In fact Languages represent the culture

    Languages are influences by the cultural elements and also influence the Socio Cultural Elements (Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis → Linguistic Determinism)

    Languages are representatives of culture and one of the most significant identity of people.

• Nature of Languages

  Nature of Language is studied with Three Different Perspective

  • Structural Perspective

    Considers Languages, as a system of structurally related elements, for transmitting towards a meaning.

    Within Structural Elements there can be phonological units, grammatical units, grammatical operations and even the lexical elements of the language.

    This Perspective is pure Linguistic Treatment or Analysis of a Language, that constitutes understanding of various structural aspects of a language.

    It is the most basic requirement to understand a language.

  • Functional / Communicative Perspective

    This view considers language, as a vehicle of expression with functional words, phrases and sentences to reach upto a functional meaning (Semantics)

    So, this perspective has more emphasis on semantic and communicative dimensions of language.

    It considers as a mean of communication.

  • Interactional Perspective

    This Perspective observes the languages, as means of establishing and maintaining interpersonal relationships to perform social transactions between different individuals and groups.

    In interactional view, the object of learning is to basically understand how people initiate and maintain conversation with each other.

  • Conclusion

    So the Nature of the Languages is to

    1. understand a language from its most basic elements
    2. to frame the grammar and dictionary of language
    3. to Utilise the Language fro communication
    4. for interpersonal relations

• Origin of Languages

  • Summary

    

  • Divine Origin Hypothesis

    Various Societies and Culture believe that Language is a gift of god to human. One Familiar one is found in Genesis 2.20 in sacred text of Bible, suggesting that Adam gave the names to all living creatures, i.e Languages are as ancient as existence of humans

    It cannot be proved scientifically, but it is definitely true that languages and human societies are inseparable

    Wherever Humans Exist, Languages Exist

  • Natural Evolution Hypothesis

    Human Acquired a Sophisticated Brain which made Language Invention and Learning Possible during course of evolution

    Either through copying the Natural Sounds, or by developing as per the Necessity.

    • Imitation Hypothesis

      • Ding Dong Hypothesis

        Says that Language begin, when humans started naming the objects or actions or phenomenon, based on a recognisable sound associated with real life

        This Hypothesis holds that the first human words were a type of verbal icon, to assign having a meaning matching with some natural or real object of sounds

        Like use of

        1. boom for explosion
        2. crash for thunderstorms.
        3. chirping for continuous small grade sounds of birds

        Conclusion

        The Problem with this Hypothesis is that, through Imitation of Natural Sounds, a limited part of vocabulary can be generated

        Also naming noiseless things and events cannot be justified, like sun, moon, emotions and love

      • Bow Wow Hypothesis

        Introduction

        The Vocabulary developed based on the imitations of animal noises like

        roaring, barking, meowing, hiss, quack quack

        Criticism

        1. Criticism can be matching with ding dong hypothesis, as very limited part of vocabulary of any language can be developed.

        2. Another Criticism use of different words in different languages for the same animal sound.

           Like quack quack has different meaning in different languages

      • Pooh Pooh Hypothesis

        Introduction

        This Hypothesis holds that initial words came from involuntary explanation of hunger, dislike, pain & pleasure eventually leading to expression of more developed ideas and emotions.

        In this case, the initial words would have been, involuntary sounds like

        1. hahaha
        2. nonono
        3. wow
        4. wah wah
        5. ouch

        Criticism

        this hypothesis is the most famous but most ridiculed

      • Ta Ta Hypothesis / Gestural Hypothesis

        Introduction

        Charles Darwin hypothesised that Speech and Language may have developed based on certain gestures like in Pantomime.

        That is the Organs of Speech, started picking up the gestures of hands and body

        It is quite possible that human languages which are more of verbal nature in present times, originated from some gestural languages as a part of communication which is still present in some primates.

        These Gestures can be having different meanings in different locations and languages i.e they can vary from culture to culture.

        For Example Nodding is

        Yes - in most Languages

        No - Turkish

        Criticism

        This kind of Language is baed on geographical and environmental interpretation of gestures, hence it lacks standardisation

      • Creole Hypothesis

        Introduction

        Creole is a fully functional language of its own, having a complete grammar and full expressive power, according to this hypothesis. Creole Languages and dictionary develop, due to mixing up of different linguistics elements.

        Criticism

        This was criticised for explaining the after effects after the origin of languages.

        Origin of Languages and it’s dictionary was missed

    • Necessity Hypothesis

      This hypothesis is dependent upon the notion that languages begin, as a response to some acute necessity i.e the initial words originated from situations from day to day life and activities of different people

      • Warning Hypothesis - Situational

        Languages may have evolved from warning signals, like those used by animals. Perhaps languages started with some words as a warning to others.

        Like

        1. Turnaround
        2. Stop
        3. Run
        4. Look Out etc

        It was meant to the used to alert the group members, the earliest words and symbols could have been related to hunting instructions or to avoid an attack on wild animals wtc

      • Yo Le Ho Hypothesis - Human Cooperation Efforts

        Languages developed on the basis of human cooperative efforts like some chantings to stimulate a collective efforts repeating war like phases to inflame the fighting skills

        collective efforts like moving large stone in front of cave, required some energy ridden words for a better physical force

      • Lying Hypothesis - Given by Sturtevant

        Sturtevant argued that all the real emotions and intentions get involuntarily expressed by the gesture or the looks or the sounds, voluntary communication and words must have been invented for the purpose of lying, deceiving or cheating

        so words and voluntary communication was to justify the selfish needs and hence origin of languages occured

• Verbal and Non Verbal Communication

  • Verbal Communication

    Verbal communication is the study of languages which involves understanding, producing and receiving of sounds. It requires approval and appraisal at different levels like,

    1. language with sounds (Phonology)
    2. meaningful communication of words
    3. formation of functional sentences to make some sense out of sentences

    In Short, Verbal Communication is communication with use of words, phrases and sentences.

  • Non Verbal Communication

    • Summary

      

    • Introduction

      Non Verbal Communication is generally a process of sending and receiving the messages without using words phrases and sentences.

      It can be communicated through gesture or through touch by body language or posture, by facial expressions, by eye contact.

      It can also be communicated through, object communication such as clothing, architecture, infographics, etc.

      In daily life communication is generally involving, a blend of both verbal and non verbal communication.

      Use of Sign Language, by Deaf & Dumb Individuals is one of the most sceintific explanation of non verbal communication

    • Three Categories of Non Verbal Communication

      • Clothing & Bodily Characters (involving minor movements)

        Various Elements like body physique, height, body odour & clothing → Non Verbal Messages, during social interactions.

        For Instance, it was found in many studies, that taller people are having more impressive personality and better perceiving capabilities of communications

      • Physical Environment

        NVC taking place in physical environment can be based on colours, architecture, music, noise and various, gestural connotations in different time and space.

        Same object or way of communication, can have different meanings and interpretations based on

        • 1 Physical Space (Proxemics)

          It is the study of how people use and perceive the physical space around them.

          The Space between sender and receiver influences the message and interpretation.

          The Perception and use of space, can vary in different cultures. Also, NVC related to an individual can have different interpretations and usage based on

          Public Space & Personal Space etc

          Proxemics was explained in Linguistics Anthropology by Edward Hall

        • 2 Time (Chronemics)

          Chronemics is the Study of use of time in NVC that is the timing and frequency of an action as well as the Tempo and Rhythm of communication within an interaction.

          Chronemics is a way to perceive time and reactions based on that time for non verbal communication.

      • Bodily Movements & Body Positions

        • 1 Kinesis

          The Term was used and propagated by Ray Birdwhistell. In broader sense it is the interpretation of body language, like facial expressions, the gesture or any sort of bodily movement. Contributing to Non Verbal Communication

          Various movements of body having some meaning can be a part of Kinesics and there should be a well defined grammar, to study the meanings of these movements to interpret the underlying motive.

        • Sub Domains of Kinesics

          Other Forms of Bodily Movements like Posture, Gesture, Haptics & Eye Gaze can be broadly considered as sub domains of Kinesics only

        • 2 Eye Gaze

          Eye Gaze is the Study of

          Eye Movement

          Eye Contact

          Expression through Eyes

          as a part of NVC

        • 3 Haptics

          It is the use and study of touch in NVC, like communication through

          handshake

          holding hands

          slapping

          pat on shoulder etc

        • 4 Posture

          It is used to determine the participants degree of attention or involvement in the communication

          Various Postural ways can be direction of body lean, armed position etc can be used in NVC

        • 5 Gesture

          Its a Non Vocal Body Movement, for expression of some meaning which can be articulated through hands or wrists or face or eyes

    • Conclusion of NVC

      Along with verbal communication, Non Verbal Communication is a significant method, to express the ideas in public or private spheres and is one of the significant interests of linguistic anthropologist.

      Also, this domain involves use of principles of psychology in understanding anthropological events.

• Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis / Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis

  • Background

    By Edward Sapir and Benjamin Wharf

    They gave these hypothesis separately

  • Introduction

    Culture and Language influence each other, there is a general agreement that cultural influence on language is more and opposite influence is not that much well marked.

    Sapir-Whorf hypothesis studies the influence of languages on culture. Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf proposed this hypothesis independently but the basic theme is same.

    It is based on the close relationship and continuous interaction between our thoughts and languages leading to an intrinsic relationship, between the fundamental features of culture and structure of languages

    This hypothesis proposes that, the relationship is so close, that the pattern of language, influences the way we think about reality → also termed as Linguistic Relativism

    Sapir and Whorf Suggested that Language is a force in its own, influencing the individuals and society at large through Two Different Versions of Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis (SWH)

  • Strong Version (Linguistic Determinism)

    All human thoughts and actions are bound by the language i.e language determines the thoughts ideas and cultures.

    It is the less accepted version of SWH.

  • Weak Version

    It states that, language only somewhat shapes the thinking and behaviour

    Linguistic Elements are only influencing the cultural elements and are not determining those.

  • Whorf’s Analysis of Hopi Indian Languages and English

    While comparing english language with Hopi Language, Whorf found out, that english language categorises and conveys the discreetness (objectivity) with regard to time and space but Hopi Languages do not

    English has a discreet and objective idea of past, present and future. Here, things are co related with definite time where as Hopi, Expresses things, with more of an Idea related to some ongoing event, without time being highlighted in specific or fixed segments.

    Whorf believed that these language differences, lead the Hopi and English speakers to see the world differently.

    Language Influences the Socio Cultural realities of population.

  • Critique of SWH

    1. No Scientific Basis

       Limited Research and Limited Quality Arguments to Justify

    2. No Practical Example

       Many Linguists and Socio Cultural Anthropologist criticised Linguistic Determinism as there is no Practical Example to Prove that

       They argued that language can be the significant factor influencing culture but cannot be the only factor.

    3. Lenneberg’s Criticism

       Lenneberg criticised the hypothesis with an argument that Wharf & Sapir never showed a connection between Linguistic, Mental or Psychological Phenomenon → This can influence the ideas, beliefs and culture at large

  • Conclusion

    Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis, may not be completely accurate in practise but also cannot be rejected at Large.

    Language is an important factor, shaping the thoughts and cultural elements.

    Over all the hypothesis helped in understanding language as a social phenomena impacting humans and society at large

• Language use in Social Context

  • Introduction

    1. It involves the study of effect of any and all a knowledge pics of society, including the cultural norms, expectations and contacts on the way language is used.
    2. It also studies how language differs, between different groups separated by certain social variables like gender, ethnic, city, religion, status, age, profession etc
    3. Use of Language in Social Context, varies from place to place and from time to time.
    4. Some fundamental concepts of socio linguistics related to use of languages in social context can be based upon

  • 1 Speech Community

    Speech Community is a discrete group of people using language in a unique and mutually accepted way amongst themselves like distinct words used by high school students with abusive or slang language

  • 2 Social Network

    a social network can be another way of describing a particular speech community in terms of relations between different members in a community.

    A Network can be loose or tight, depending upon how members interact with each other.

  • 3 Age and Gender Differences

    Age Difference can be another aspect to study the differences in use of language in social context

    Young Populations dress up differently, also use different versions of language not generally found in old age populations.

  • 4 Gender Difference

    Gender Differences and use of language, studied by Zimmerman and West, found some fundamental minimal differences,

    Women tend to make more fundamental responses as compared to men like hmm, ya, no

    Men tend to be more verbally aggressive, frequently using, abusive, yelling and threatening words.

  • 5 Class Difference

    Bessel Benstein - a British Socio Linguist claimed that, members of middle class have different ways of organising their speech which is fundamentally different form the ways adopted by working class

    For Example :

    1. social cohesion and bond is strong in working class → emphasis on “WE”
    2. as compared to middle class with → Emphasis on “I”

  • 6 Pidgin & Creole - Can be 10 Marker Short Note

    PIDGIN is the term associated with outcome of mixing up of words and languages. A Pidgin arises when speakers of two different languages encounter one another and have a need for limited communication.

    The Pidgin incorporates words from both source languages and has a simple or unspecified grammatical structure, just enough to allow communication for some limited purpose.

    For Ex : a rickshaw puller, communicating with a foreigner for drop point and charges.

    In Contrasts, a CREOLE is a fully functional version of a language of its own, having an elaborative grammar which is different from the grammar of source languages.

    A Creole Language Develops spontaneously amongst children living in multilingual community. For example, some languages developed in various areas where European colonial powers established commercial enterprises based in imported labours, generally slaves. These Labourers at one place often came from several different societies and in the beginning would speak with there masters using pidgin.

    Gradually some of these pidgins will develop into a creole, particularly when next generation will learn the parents and masters language.

    Hence, with passage of time, a new grammar will evolve.

    Pidgin and Creole can be most significant methods for use of languages in multi cultural & multi ethnic societies

  • 7 Prestige

Paper 1 - Unit 2.1 - The Nature of Culture

• Introduction to Culture
  1. Culture is not a sophisticated entity in totality.
  2. In Anthropology, Every Society Irrespective of Time and Space, has a uUnique culture. Anthropology looks at culture free from the bias of good or bad, civilised or uncivilised society
  3. Whether it can be

     1. Simple & Complex

     2. Rural & Urban

     3. Tribal & Regular Society

  4. Any & Every type of society has its own culture → This Culture is the Identity of the Society
  5. Culture as a concept in anthropology is universal and unique
• Cultures as Identity of Population
  1. Lossar Festival - Tibetan New Year
     1. Tibetans
     2. Ladakhis
     3. Buddhist Population of Sikkim & Arunachal Region
  2. Sattariya Dance - Dance Form
     1. West Bengal
     2. Parts of Assam
     3. Extended to Parts of Bangladesh & Orissa
• Elements of Culture are

  1. Symbols

  2. Rituals

  3. Festivals

  4. Languages

  5. Dances

  6. Material Things

     Cultures use material things as an element as part of society

  7. Technological Advancements

  8. Ideals

  9. Behaviour

  10. Mental or Psychological Framework

• Culture according to E B Tylor

  1. In the Words of E B Tylor (in the book Primitive Culture) defined the term culture as a complex hole which includes the beliefs, art, rituals, customs, morals, law, knowledge etc and any sort of potential or capabilities or acquired habit or behaviour, adopted by humans as a part of society.

• Culture according to Malinowski

  Culture is an Instrumental Reality and Apparatus for the Satisfaction of Biological and derived needs.

• Culture according to Bodley

  1. What People Think → idea, Belief, Mental Framework, Cognitive Ability
  2. What People Do → Belief Leads to Inculcation
  3. What People Produce → Production of things → Material Objects
  4. Technological Advancement

• Primary Characteristics of Culture

  DIG S LIC (DIG ne Staff se Kaha LIC Leni Hai)

  • 1 Learned

    1. It is Acquired after Birth
    2. It is not Biological but Social
    3. You Can Learn a Culture as a Member of Society
    4. Ranging from Infancy until the time spent, learning improves

  • 2 Inculcated

    1. Inculcation is passing of culture from generation tot generation not by genes but by social history

    2. It is unique to humans, but not entirely

       1. Chimpanzee

          Every chimpanzee learns very primitive speech

       2. Tiger

          Every Cub Learns Hunting

    3. Humans, behaviour is affected not only by parents, but by individuals of society

  • 3 Commonly Shared (Social)

    1. Culture is a Group Phenomenon
    2. Anything that is Broadly Accepted or rejected by Society is culture

    ---

    Social Nature of Culture

    1. Culture is always Social in Nature
    2. It Involves social interactions
    3. Individual Habits are not culture
    4. Hence, Culture is Commonly Shared
    5. In the Words of E B Tylor (in the book Primitive Culture) defined the term culture as a complex hole which includes the beliefs, art, rituals, customs, morals, law, knowledge etc and any sort of potential or capabilities or acquired habit or behaviour, adopted by humans as a part of society.
    6. Acquired → Not Biological & By Birth
    7. Culture is not Biologically Determined but Socially Inculcated
    8. Culture is not Inherent but Learned
    9. Culture is a kind of Social Learning

  • 4 Symbolic

    1. Symbols can be Material and Non Material in Nature
    2. Examples of Symbols are
       1. Totem
       2. Myths
       3. Fairs Festivals
       4. Rituals
    3. Symbol is a gesture in conformity of acceptance or denial in society
    4. Certain Symbols can be unique to a particular culture
       1. Kalaripattu
       2. Lossar Festival
       3. Talanoa Dialouge of Polynesia
    5. Everything an individual is doing throughout life based upon is shaped by and is organised through cultural symbolism

  • 5 Dynamic

    1. It changes and adapts with time
    2. Generally Culture is a Stable Entity
    3. But at the Same time it is dynamic, only those elements of culture are retained which are useful in contemporary times
    4. Example

       1. Change of Ideology with change in time takes place which shapes the culture of society

          Joint Family Structure moving toward unwillingness to live in a JF and leaning towards Extended or Nuclear Family

       2. After Second World War, Birth Rate Increased in many parts of the World, as people realised the value of human resource

       3. Village as a Structure exist, but amenities of cities have entered

          1. CCTV in Villages
          2. WiFi Clusters of Villages
    5. Change in Pace of Dynamic Pace of Society
       1. Scandinavian Country Sweden gave RTI in 1700 where as in India gave in 2005
       2. Population of Canada is equal to Population of Delhi which affects the rate of dynamism in India
    6. Elements of Culture found useful to population will be retained for longer periods and non useful ones will be not

  • 6 Integrative → Can be a 10 Marker Question

    • Factors of Integrative Nature

      Mutual Co Relation and Adjustments between these Elements of Culture

      1. Social
      2. Political
      3. Economic
      4. Religious
      5. Family
      6. Kinship

    • Example : Kapauku’s of Papua New Guinea

      1. Studied by Leopold Pospisil
      2. The Integration of Economic, Social, Ideological, Familial and other facets of culture in Kapauku Papuans (a Hilly Tribe of Western Papua New Guinea) is a classical example of Integrated System of Culture
      3. The Kapauku Economy Relied Mainly on the Agriculture and Plant cultivation, along with that Fishing, Horticulture, Hunting and domestication of animals is also involved
      4. Domestication of Animals → breeding and rearing of pigs is the most important and central activity to Kapauko System
      5. Although, Agriculture fulfils maximum food demands
      6. It is through pig breeding that man
         1. achieves political power
         2. social status
         3. legal authority etc
      7. Amongst the Kapauko Papuans, Pig Breeding is an Complex and Integrative facet of their culture, raising more number of pigs, require extra horticulture activity for production of sweet potatoes
      8. Males are mainly involved in outdoor hunting, clashes and wars with other groups and in safeguarding the populations
      9. so women are left behind for horticulture activity and breeding of pigs
      10. To raise and handle more no of Pigs, more and more no of women are required. so multiple wives to an individual and hence practise of polygamy is seen
      11. For Each Wife Man must Pay a Bride Price which is generally very high and keeps on increasing.
      12. So the Kapauku, Cultural System is an Integrative culture with co related different aspects

  • 7 Gratifying

    1. Culture Fulfils
       1. Biological Needs - Procreation
       2. Social Needs - Respect and Cognition
       3. Family Need
    2. For all these needs culture has a social code of conduct and procedures

• Secondary Characteristics of Culture

  • 1 Overtness and Covertness in Culture - Studied By Outsider

    1. Overtness → superficial things which can be observed easily by an outsider
    2. Covertness → in depth study needed for understanding the concept of that culture

  • 2 Explicit and Implicit Elements of Culture - Studied By Insider - Kluckhohn

    1. Explicit → Experienced by Member in Routine

    2. Implicit → Even Members of Society aren't witnessing it in routine

       Not so frequent experience

  • 3 Ethos and Eidus of Culture - Studied By Kroeber

    Ruth Benedict → Pattern of Culture can also be discussed

    1. Ethos → those aspects of culture which define the beliefs psychologically (Brain/Mental)

    2. Eidus → Overall reflection of Culture

       Its a broader term

  • 4 Organic and Super Organic Elements

    1. Organic - Culture is Organic in Nature, due to thinking capacity of brains, culture is developed

       Culture is organic that is it is embedded in the biological nature of human brain i.e thinking emotions ideals behaviours are regulated by brain

    2. Super Organic - after development of that cultural element, it becomes grater than the individual

       Once originated culture will acquire the super organic character i.e a quality that will make culture exists on a level which is above the individual who created it

• Cultural Process

  • Running Notes

    1. Example :

    Joint/Extended Families → Nuclear Families (Husband/Wife/Kids) → Same Sex Family (Gays/Lesbians) → Single Parent Family

    A cultural process can be continuous in one or same direction

    Significant Objective of Marriage : Procreation but people are choosing to have co habitation but not pro create

    Case Study : in a town in Norway after 28 Years a Child was Born that too with a South Asian Couple

    Case Study : Declining Sex Rate of Iceland,

  • Introduction

    1. A Cultural Process is a gradual, continuous and specific change or action by which the elements of culture are formed or are modified
    2. A Cultural Process may promote better adjustments of human population to new conditions or events.
    3. It defines the course of dynamic developments of culture
    4. Cultural Process may impact Specific Elements of Culture or Whole Culture
    5. Set of Changes, May trigger a Chain Reaction, like one node impacting another, second one impacting another and so on
    6. For Example changes in the Marriages and Family Structure Define a Cultural Process.

  • 5 Prominent Aspects of Cultural Process

    • 1 Cultural Evolution

      Process of Socio Cultural Change from

      1. Homogenity to Heterogeneity
      2. Simple to Complex
      3. from Indefinite to Definite

      When Society changes its form from Simple Small Scale Agrarian Society to Complex Urban Society

      These Aspects of Cultural Process were Explained by Evolutionist and Neo Evolutionist

    • 2 Cultural Diffusion

      Where the Cultural Elements, Complexes, are getting diffused or passed from one society to another through movement of people, traders, missionaries, war etc

    • 3 Enculturation

      It is the Process by which a growing chil learns, understands and imbibes cultural elements of his or her society i.e from one generation to next generation

    • 4 Acculturation

      It was first introduced by Kroeber in Anthro wrt to the changes in specific elements of culture triggered by its contact with other cultures

      Example : Indo Islamic Architecture with advent of Turks, Arabs and Mughals into India

      It cant come in existence, until the contact between two cultures is relatively continuous

    • 5 Trans-Culturation

      In Simple Words - Its Mutual Impact

      It comes into existence when two societies and cultures experience change in their cultural matrix due to influence of each other i.e exchange of cultural items, value system, rituals etc

      Example

      1. Celebration of Western Festival in India (Halloween) and Indian Festivals in West (Diwali)

• Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism

  • Introduction to Ethnocentrism

    The term “Ethnocentrism” was coined by sociologist “Williamn Sumner” in his book “Folkways”

    Since beginning of the discipline, anthropologists have been trying to find out different people, there culture and way of existence. In these findings, various anthropologists found their own society, culture & way of life as the best of all the possible ways of human existence.

    These sentiments can be reflected, in findings of many anthropological studies, when they translate the virtues of their own societies as true human beings. In contrast, they use some demeaning & derogatory term for other societies and culture,

    like barbaric, dogs, monkeys, weird looking etc

    These considerations are typical characteristics of ethnocentrism i.e any adequately functioning culture regards its own ways of life, in positive terms and quite often as the only proper way to live. This view is Ethnocentrism.

    Prominent Sociologist Williamn Sumner, Coined and defined this term as “a tendency to assume that ones own way of life and culture, is superior to all others,

    i.e the feeling of WE,US,I are dominating over THEY → Simply the In group Sentiments and group solidarity is highly placed over other groups i.e the superiority complex over the others

    Sumner continued that, ethnocentrism is universal and present in every society, whether in

    past or in present,

    small or large,

    simple or complex

    rural or urban

    at a smaller or larger scale

  • Types of Ethnocentrism

    • Positive (+ve)

      When Preference is given to ones own way of life. This is the most commonly found form of ethnocentrism, providing a group identity to people or the nationalistic sentiment of taking pride in ones culture and traditions

    • Negative (-ve)

      Ethnocentrism becomes negative when a particular sentiment of ones own group, takes the centre stage for everything and all others are scaled or rated based on that

    • Extreme Negative (- - ve)

      When a dominating, more powerful group, not only impose its culture and rules on other groups, but also depreciate the other culture and its elements

  • Franz Boas’s view on Ethnocentrism

    for the first time in anthropology Franz Boas rejected the, three stage classification of human civilisation i.e Savagery to Barbaric to Civilised. this rejection was further supported by his students like (Ruth Benedict, Margaret Mead and Herskovitz)

    Boas introduced the concept of cultural relativism, even the functionalism of Malinowski was known to be ethnocentric in nature

  • Ethnocentrism in Primitive and Modern Societies

    Ethnocentrism in primitive and modern societies as explained by Sumner has different ways of expression.

    Ethnocentrism will be less wider and assumes more peaceful forms of expression in advance complex societies i.e they are more open in accepting elements of other cultures because of a long history of traders, missionaries, colonisers and impacts of globalisation.

    Sumner says that in general,

    1. ethnocentrism in modern nations, with complex societies is more on the sentiments of Patriotism
    2. where as in primitive small scale simple societies, the ethnocentric sentiments are more towards, defending the very nature of the group

    Elements of Cultural Shock, will be lesser in advanced complex societies and will be significant in simple small scale societies.

  ---

• Cultural Relativism

  Franz Boas and many of his students rejected the ethnocentric, classification of cultural elements, through the stages of savagery, barbaric & civilised.

  He rejected the notion of superiority of western culture and all the Boasians insisted that a society, its customs or ideas, should be described objectively, in its own context and history.

  Cultural Relativism promotes the idea that, every society and culture is unique in itself and hence should be studied, in terms of its own value system independent of others.

  The belief system of different societies can be compared to find out the similarities and differences, but not in terms of superiority/inferiority or advanced/backward systems

  Any character or trait in a culture, is neither good or bad in itself and even for others and hence should be studies as a unique aspect of some culture.

  Ruth Benedict in the Book Patterns of Culture Accepted and Expanded the Concept of Cultural Relativism and considered it as a pre requisite of any anthropological research.

  Even Famous Sociologist Max Webber through Construction of Ideal Types, rejected the prejudice or pre conceived notions in the minds of researchers, based on ethnocentric sentiments

  So concept of Cultural Relativism is based on Tolerance, accepting the human plurality regarding rights of all humans.

  Boasians maintained that even if some cultural practise of a group, is harmful to their health, survival or environment, it should be explained to them, in their own cultural pre text and not in comparison to others

  Conclusion : In the words of Michael Brown, Cultural Relativism is less a comprehensive theory and more of a thumb ruler, keeping the anthropologist alert while studying the perspectives of other cultures

• Culture and Civilisation

  • Civilisation and Culture vis-a-vis Civilisation

    In the Words of Green, culture becomes civilisation when it contains a written format of language, metallurgy, technology, complex economic and political systems etc

    Gillin and Gillin considered civilisation as a more complex and evolved form of a culture, in broader sense civilisation is advanced form of a culture

    Culture is primarily the non material aspects, whereas civilisation is mainly material in nature.

    💡 Civilisation represents a particular type of culture, cultural elements can be regarded as the genotype of an individuals whereas civilisation is the outward manifestation or phenotype based on that genotype

  • Civilisation & Indigenous Groups

    1. Ab Origins are mainly with non permanent settlements and primitive form of Agriculture and Foragery (hunting-gathering)

       Whereas, people live in Permanent Settlements and commercial and mechanised agriculture under a civilisation

    2. Ab Origins rural forest based existence

       Civilisations have cities extended

    3. Well defined grammar and written scripts with maximum Civilisation

       generally absent with Ab Origins

    4. Large Complex Political and Economic Structure in Civilisation

       Simple Scale Political and Economic Structure in Ab Origins

  • Similarities → Mac Iver & Page

    Gave Co-Relation between Culture & Civilisation that is Similarities and differences. Both Culture and Civilisations are interdependent and continuously connected to each other

    Civilisation represents material Culture and Culture implies non-material Civilisation

    The Ship Analogy

    Giving the analogy of a ship, MacIver and Page explained the interdependence of culture & civilisation. Civilisation is a Ship which can sail to various ports with its mechanical structure and its technology but culture is the direction to that ship related to the destination port.

    In Short Culture, Commands Civilisation & Civilisation Represents a Culture

  • Differences → Culture & Civilisation

    | Civilisation | Culture | | --- | --- | | Material Aspects | Non-Material | | External/Outward | Internal/Inward | | Material things, Technology, cities | Spirituality & Development of Language, Ideals and beliefs | | Civilisation Involves the efforts of the masses | Cultural Advancement is a function of Creative Minority, Artist, Philosophers, Poets etc | | civilisation is not a rule | Cultural Changes are universal in nature due to various factors | | Civilisation can be borrowed without any change or loss of originality | Culture is not usually transmitted in its original character |

  • Conclusion

    So Culture and Civilisation are two essential elements of a broader single unit i.e society and human populations

    Cultural Advancements in a particular society or populations carry it towards the civilisation

Paper 1 - Unit 2.2 - The Nature of Society

• Society - Definition and Explanations

  1. Society → is derived from the Latin Word Socius (Latin), meaning Companionship/Friendship

     Companionship means → The Ability of Sociability

  2. George Simmel → The elements of sociability is the true essence of society, indicating that man always lives in the company of other people

  3. Aristotle → Defined Man as a Social Animal

  4. Karl Marx → Explained the Existence of Society in Economic Terms that man was always aware with the fact that, man in association can always produce more than man in isolation.

  5. MacIver & Page → They considered society as a system of usages and procedures, authority & mutual aid between different people.

     There is a certain social divisions based on different criteria which regulate human behaviour and liberties

  6. Morris Ginsberg → Society as an institution is a collection of individuals united by certain relations

• Components of Social Setup

  

  In all these interpretation and explanations of society , majorly two components can be understood

  1. Structural Components

     Majorly the Social Institutions like Marriage, Family, School, Village etc

  2. Functional Components

     Are the outcomes of the interactions of social institutions or members of society

     Like Pre Creation out of marriages, sense of security and various other functions from family

     Awareness and Education from Schools

     Cohesiveness & Togetherness from Villages

• Theories - Origin of Society

  • Introduction

    Various theories have been proposed to explain the origin of society

    1. Divine Origin Theory considered society as a creation of God

    2. Force Theory Highlighted the Involvement of certain superior or supernatural forces

    3. Evolutionary Theories were later given by Classical Evolutionists ; considering the origin of society as a gradual evolution from Savagery to Barbaric to Civilised

       These arguments were outrightly rejected by sociologists and anthropologists

  • Patriarchal & Matriarchal Theory

    These arguments consider, origin of society either through

    1. Male Lines of Descent - Patriarchal Origin of Society

       Henry Maine was one the strongest supporter of this theory with an argument that : male took responsibility to protect the females and kids from natural or wildlife threats.

       These responsibilities, gave authorities to the male, particularly the eldest male member, to decide the aspects of existence of family and society, which gradually led to emergence of society as a institution

    2. Female Lines of Descent - Matriarchal Origin of Society

       Matriarchal Theory suggests that, due to dominance of → Polyandrous and Transient Marriages in primitive times (more than Polygyny, Monogamous or Settled Marriages)

       The Maternal Lines of descent emerged, because motherhood was the fact of that time which was permanent and paternity was only an option.

       Hence, the Importance of female lineage outweighed the Male lineage

  • Social Contract Theory

    Introduction

    It was proposed and supported by philosophers like Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau.

    Basic theme of the Theory is that Humans Deliberately Created Society, so that the Natural Disasters, can be handled through collective efforts, attacks of wildlife can be avoided and food production can be enhanced.

    Individuals Precedence over Society

    This theory argues that, individuals preceded society, which was later criticised by many sociologist and anthropologist.

    which argued that males and females through procreation, can begin the most initial stages of society

    Hobbs’s View

    According to Hobbs man in the state of nature was in perpetual conflict with his neighbours, on account of the essentially selfish nature.

    He said man was solitary, poor, nasty, cheat, brutal etc & hence every man was enemy of every other man, so to protect his existence, to protect his existence and evil consequences man organised himself in the society.

    Locke’s View

    Locke Believed that State of Nature was of Peace, Good Will and Mutual Assistance, with Self Sufficiency of Food.

    The only limitation was the absence of Recognised System of Law and Justice, so human entered into a contract by which a group was given some authority to administer Law and Justice. Thus in this need of humans, community and society emerged.

    Rousseau’s View

    Rousseau in his argument held that, naturally humans were

    1. Equal
    2. Satisfied
    3. Self Sufficient
    4. With Sentiments of Containment
    5. Living Happily & with Simplicity

    but increase in population, started the struggle for food and resources and necessitated the establishment of civil society to avoid conflicts. This led to emergence of a full fledged society.

    Conclusion

    Social Contract Theory seems to assume that man as an individual, is prior to society. This assumption can be erroneous, because sociality is inborn in humans. As soon as an individual, sees the light of the birth, sociality and society becomes a reality.

    In simple words, human beings are humans inside a society. Social Contract as an argument can be limited to only some of the societies.

• Society Culture and Individuals

  Introduction

  In the words of Nadel, Culture is a way of life of people, whereas society itself is made up of people in an organised way when members interact with each other through various social relations

  Since the time of Franz Boas, culture became an important tool for understanding and describing the outside societies. Anthropological studies wrt cultural relativism, allows a comparative study of culture w/o considering evolutionary hierarchies.

  In Simple Words, every culture has its own existence and value system making it unique and different from others.

  Society can be seen as a collection of individual members, fulfilling their interests under the formal rules of society.

  It is to ensure the survival of group and society. Members of the society learn to postpone certain immediate personal needs and satisfactions, till the time they are being fulfilled through proper channel, within the norms of society, in an authorised way.

  For Example, matter of sexual behaviour & expression is shaped by society and culture. Sexual Gratification is an Individual Need but fulfilment through legitimate ways leading to procreation is a societal need.

  Bu this individual need can be disruptive, when it is

  1. Illegitimate
  2. Forced
  3. Rape

  In the words of Sociologist R K Merton, there will always be some element of deviance, in every society, which can disrupt a balanced social order.

  In Simple Words, culture is produced in a given society, within framework setup by Socio Economic, Political Structure, as society is made up of individuals having their own special needs and interests

  Conclusion

  During the course of life society and culture, must strike a Balance, between needs, desires, interests of individuals and of society as a whole.

  When societal needs are always preferred over an individual, people may experiences excessive stress which may in turn lead to disruption of social order, gradually leading to cultural breakdown.

• Social Institutions

  • Definition of Social Institution - Starting Dictation Pending

    Majumdar, Social Institution is an collective mode of response or behaviour, which is in existence from generations, prescribing a well defined way of doing things binding the members together, through various symbols and rituals.

    Mac Iver & Page defined an Institution as an established form, processes and procedures which typically forms a group identity.

    Emile Durkheim, Sociology is the study of social institutions & social institutions are related to the members of the society

    Social Institutions are the building blocks of society like the protein present in human body, providing a framework.

  • Characteristic of Social Institution

    1. Social Institutions are Social in Nature, and not Individualistic

    2. Social Institutions are Universal

    3. Social Institutions are Independent as well as Interdependent

    4. Social Institutions are Dynamic in Nature,

       They are relatively permanent undergoing gradual changes

       Sometimes fast sometimes slow, but there is always a change

    5. Social Institutions have fixed norms to be followed by the members.

    6. Social Institutions fulfils needs of individuals through prescribed norms

    7. Institutions are synthesised in symbols, which can be material or non material in nature

  • Types of Institutions

    • Primary Institutions

      These are the most basic units in any society, which are present, in one or another form, in all the societies whether

      1. Primitive or Advanced
      2. Rural or Urban
      3. Simple or Complex

      Institutions like marriage and family, religion, state, economy, education and awareness etc form the primary institutions

    • Secondary Institutions

      These are outcomes of new social order, which are gradually formed with changes taking place in primary institutions.

      For Example, Changes in

      1. Marriage → Divorce
      2. Family Structure → Nuclear or Extended Families

      Like banking sector stock market came out from economy

      Temple, Church, Mosque etc came out from Religion

    • Comparison

      | Theme | Primary | Secondary | | --- | --- | --- | | Defintion | in all types of societies these institutions are always present in one or other form | These are outcomes of new social order, which are gradually formed with changes taking place in primary institutions | | Examples | 1. Family 2. Education & Awareness 3. Religion 4. State | 1. Divorce in Marriage. 2. Nuclear Family in Family 3. Superstition in Religion |

  • Erwin Gauffman’s concept of Total Institution

    1. This concept was explained by Erwin Gauffman in his Essay : Essays on the Social Situation of Mental Patients & other Inmates
    2. A Total Institution is defined as a place of work or stay, may be residence or any other location where a large number of similarly situated people are present generally cut off from the wider society & community for a considerable period of time
    3. For Examples
       1. Jail Inmates / Prisoners
       2. Army or Defence Establishments
       3. Old Age Homes
       4. Patients undergoing treatment for certain disorder for longer time like in Sever TB or Leprosy
    4. These people form an enclosed, social group and these institutions act as centres for development of new social relations or a sort of obligation of re socialisation for those members of the society.
    5. Types of Social Institutions
       1. Institutions Established to take care of incapable & harmless poor people, including orphanages, old age homes & nursing homes.
       2. Institutions established for diseased people suffering from leprosy, mental illness, severe Tb.
       3. Institutions to protect community from criminals, terrorists or anti social elements like
          1. Jail & Juvenial Detention Centres
          2. these kind also include Rehabilitation camps for drug addicts
          3. or even the resettlement camps (refugee camps) for people of war crimes
       4. Institutions established for some specific task, like boarding schools, naval ships.
       5. Institutions designed as retreats from the world, serving for religious preachings like monasteries, convents, ashrams, madrassas etc.

• Status and Role by Ralph Linton in “Study of Man”

  Concept of Status and Role occupies central space in analysis of social structure. This concept is central to day to day life of humans, way before sociologists and anthropologists studied this.

  Status is defined position in a social structure, distinguished & related to other positions, each status, is linked to a social role, based on a set pattern of behaviour expected from the person enjoying the status. (by Hobbs and Black)

  The term status is not necessarily related to honour, prestige or hierarchy, it is just a positional aspect for a role.

  Linton Maintained that Status is bundle of rights and duties and a person has to perform his duties, as an obligation towards the Status → This Obligation to fulfil the duty is role

  A person can have multiple status at any point of life. A person can be a father, brother, politician, doctor and husband at a single point of time → This is Status Set for an Individual.

  There are two different types of Status for an Individual

  1. Ascribed Status → Given to an Individual by birth by society based on sex, race, caste, ethnicity, religion, etc

     Like Varna System after it became Rigid

  2. Achieved Status → Individuals acquired this status in a lifetime as a outcome of knowledge, skill, occupation, perseverance, etc

     Like Choosing a Profession or Becoming a Parent

  3. Conclusion : Both Ascribed and Achieved Status exists in maximum societies.

     However, change in status is allowed in varying degrees in different societies. Also, various roles associated with the status are symbols of social recognition and hence an easy change is not generally allowed, particularly for the ascribed status.

     Both Achieved and Ascribed Status regulate the social behaviour of Individuals in a social setup.

Social Stratification

• Introduction

  Social Stratification refers to division of societies in different stratum of groups placed one above the other, in hierarchy. It is different from inequality and focuses pre dominantly on social inequality.

  Social Stratification can be based on various parameters, like

  1. Ethnicity
  2. Religion
  3. Caste
  4. Gender
  5. Power
  6. Authority

• Example 1 - By Karl Marx

  Marx divided the Capitalist society in two antagonistic groups, which emerged after industrial revolution.

  1. Bourgeoisie

     Here, Bourgeoisie were owners of resources, hence were called as means of production

  2. Proletariats

     Here, Proletariats were the labour or the working class

• Example 2 - Indian Caste System

  Another classical example of social stratification is traditional hindu caste system, based on ancient varna system, where different social groups are divided into 4 major section, based on activities associated with that group. The division is

  1. Brahmins
  2. Kshatriyas
  3. Vaishya
  4. Shudras

• Explanation of the Indian Caste System by Louis Dumont

  Louis Dumont explained this concept with Purity and Pollution i.e

  as we move up from Shudras to Brahmins the level of Purity Increases

  as we move down from Brahmins to Shudras the level of Pollution Increases

  In all the societies, from the ancient to modern time, some sort of stratification was always there with varying degrees.

• Various theories to explain Social Stratification

  👨‍🏫 In Exam, Use Theory 2 & 3 → Use As 1 (More Socio) Use Theory 1 & 4 → Separately (More Anthro)

  ---

  Proposition

  • 1. Functionalist Theory of Social Stratification Spencer / Davis & Moore

    Summary

    

    ---

    Background

    1. Propounded by : Herbert Spencer and August Comte
    2. Better Explained by : Davis & Moore

    ---

    Introduction

    According to Functionalist, social stratification is unavoidable and functional to society. society as a functional unit works in a balance based on division of labour created by social stratification.

    Functionalists like Herbert Spencer and August Comte, were of the view that a particular profession is rewarded and respected more because of more money, time and effort invested

    Division of Labour created by this Stratification is Functional to the Society, increasing the efficiency of production and the competitive spirit. All these contribute towards the betterment of society.

    ---

    Davis and Moore, were the strongest supporters and promoters of functionalist view of stratification.

    They argued that greater is the functional importance of a social role, greater must be the reward (Economic Reward or Social Status)

    Example 1 -

    For Example, A Fire Fighters Job is more important than the clerk of a grocery store. Hence the clerk should be rewarded and incentivised more as compared to the clerk.

    If this incentivisation and better social recognition will not be there, why would someone be willing to rush into the burning buildings.

    Example 2 -

    Giving Example of Doctor and Nurse ; Davis & Moore argued that the Monetary Incentives, Prestige and Recognition in the society should always be better for a doctor than the nurse as the effort, time & money invested while studying medicine is way more than in Nursing.

    ---

    Criticism

    Melvin Tumin was the foremost critique of functionalists in his thesis “Some Principles of Social Stratification : A Critical Analysis”.

    He questioned that If incentivising more and giving better social status is associated with the importance of the Job.

    Then why a Basketball Player is earning more money and fame as compared to a Scientist

    Tumin Argued that Economic Resources with some limited people is aggravating social stratification

    and due to that underprivileged youth have less chances of achieving a better social status

    ---

    Conclusion

    The Functionalist aspect of stratification were an earlier attempt to explain the existing divisions of society.

    It was not accepted by Sociologist and Anthropologists in the same form but contributed significantly towards socio cultural anthropology

  ---

  Conflict

  • 2. Theory of Social Stratification Karl Marx Conflict View Perspective View

    Theory of Social Stratification by Marx

    Marxian Theory of social stratification is a radical reaction, against the functionalist theory of Social Stratification.

    According to Functionalist, Stratification is Functional in the Society and is inevitable, because it increases the efficiency of production in the society, based on division of labour.

    According to Marx, Stratification is a divisive force dividing the society in antagonistic groups, which will be in conflict with one another at some point of time. This is the reason marxian view is called the Conflict View of Stratification

    According to Marx, Class is a Social Group where, members share the similar relationship with means of productions. It is like the capitalists or bourgeois share the same relation i.e ownership of means of production on the other hand the working class and labourers (proletariat), belong to same social group.

    In words of Marx, these social groups are created, based on disparity in income. Marx Maintained that after primitive communism, every society witnessed some or the other type of social stratification. Like,

    1. Masters & Slaves in Ancient Society
    2. Feudal Lords & Landless Labourers in Agricultural Society
    3. Bourgeoises and Proletariat in modern capitalist society

    Modern Capitalist Society → Social Stratification is marked based on the exploitation of labourers & exploitation will be continued, till the time of consciousness being achieved by

    Labour Class (Pauperisation) → Leading to a Bloody Revolution that will overthrow the Capitalists and after that all the resources will be collectively owned forming an egalitarian society without any class based social stratification

  • 3. Idea of Social Stratification Max Weber Conflict View Addition of Two More Divisions

    Introduction

    Like Marx, Weber also considered stratification in economic terms, he agreed with Marx that class is a social groups whose members share similar relationship with the means of production.

    This leads to disparity of income and hence social stratification.

    Weber maintained that other than power, status and power also served as basis of stratification.

    ---

    Criticism of Marx - Oversimplification

    Criticising Marx, weber said that stratification of capitalists society just into 2 classes of Bourgeois and Proletariat was an oversimplification.

    He proposed 4 different Stratum in Capitalist Societies

    1. Propertied Upper Class
    2. Propertyless Educated Middle Class
    3. Petty Bourgeois
    4. Labour Class

    ---

    Status - Basis of Stratification

    According to Weber, Status is another basis of Social Stratification which is based on unequal distribution of prestige in the Society i.e a persons status will determine the Hierarchy.

    He gave the example of traditional hindu society where caste based social stratification is not determined by economic ownership. Here even if a brahmin or kshatriya is poor as compared to shudra, he would enjoy a higher social status in hierarchy.

    Weber considered this form of Stratification as the most matured form of division based on status.

    ---

    Power - Basis of Stratification

    Other than class and status ; power is also a basis of social stratification, giving a person higher position in social hierarchy.

    Weber cited the example of Military Elites in America that they enjoyed a higher position in society, irrespective of their class, status or economic resources

  • 4. Feminist Perspective Patricia Hill Collins / Ann Oakley Conflict View Gender Perspective of Stratification - From Class Notes

    Names

    1. Herbert Spencer
    2. Talcott Parson
    3. Patricia Hil Collin
    4. Ann Oakley
    5. Raja Ram Mohan Roy
    6. Jyotiba Phule
    7. Savitribhai Phule
    8. Veena Majumdar
    9. Leela Dubey
    10. Gita Sen
    11. Brinda Karat

Paper 2 - Unit 3.1 - Structure & Nature of Traditional Indian Social System

• Varna System

  • Initially Varna System was not Caste System

  • Varna in Vedas

    1. Do not consider Varna By Birth
    2. Do not consider Varna Based on Families
    3. It is not a method of stratification here
    4. Not on hierarchy
    5. Not a System in

  • Varna as Personality Types

    • 4 Personality Types are

      Actually it is referred as 4 different personality types in humans

      1. Brahmins - Preaching & Learning
      2. Kshatriyas - Rule Govern Fight
      3. Vaishyas - Land Management, Trade & Commerce
      4. Shudra - Food Production & Labour

    • Quotes of Bhagavad Geeta

      Chaturvarnam Mahashrishtiya Gunakarma Vibhagasha (four Varnas are divine creation on the basis of inherit qualities) – Bhagwat Geeta

      Chaturvarnam - Four Varnas

      Mayashrishtiya -

      Gunakarma - Based on Gun

      Vibhagasha - Division

    • Characteristics of Personality Types

      1. Natural Traits
      2. Psycho-Biological Equipment of Individual

  • Various Theories on Varna System

    • Triguna Theory of Varna System
      • Introduction
        1. Tri Guna - Three Characters / Three Traits
        2. Varna System is based on certain inherent & inbuilt traits && qualities of humans
        3. They are found in varied proportion. Each Individual proportion over all character moves towards Varna.
      • The Three Traits are
        • Satvik
          1. State of Sattva
          2. Good Behaviour Good Ideology Good Wisdom Helpful to Others
          3. PT w/o bad habits
        • Rajsik
          1. State of High Living of Luxury
          2. Presence of Pride Glory Valour Warriorship Leadership Skills Govern
        • Tamsik
          1. It is being in the state of Tamas
          2. Use hands more and mind less
          3. Meaning working as labour
    • Composite Theory of Varna System

      • Introduction and Back Ground

        1. Irt is given by P V Kane - Pandu Vaman Kane
        2. He is Bharat Ratna & A Sanskrit Schola

      • Composite Theory

        • Factors in Emergence of Varna System

          1. Mixing of Cultures & Civilisation

             Ex : Meeting of Aryans and Non Aryans

          2. Continuous Contact Between Different Cultures

             Ex : Aryans Influencing Non Aryans

          3. Functional Specialisation

             Ex : Demand of Division of Labour

        Theoretical Proposition

        • Non Aryans → Shudras

          When Aryans met Non Aryans, the biggest difference between them was that of Skin Colour.

          Non Aryans were termed as Dasas / Dasyus

          Due to difference in colours, aryans started considering themselves

          This Ideology Emerged with Closure of Samhita Period

          These Dark Complexion Individual later became Shudras

          The Shudras were further divided into different lower caste people like Chandalas and Paulkasas

        • Aryans → B K V

          The spirit of exclusiveness and pride of superiority entered into the groups of Aryans too and birth of three other Varnas took place – B, K, V

  • Characteristics of Varna System System

    • 1. Stratification

      4 Layers of Traditional Hindu Society B K V S

      B K - Upper Strata

      V S - Lower Strata

    • 2. Universal Appearance & Existence (India)

      Evidence of Varna in All Over India from Extrema North to South and West to East

      Very Minimal Occurrence and Evidences in Tribal Belts

    • 3. Mobility
      4. Initially Allowed, Later Restricted and Limited
      5. From S to V
      6. From V to K
      7. But not from V to B
      8. Each Step up would take a Birth

    • 4. No of Births & Upanayan Sanskara

      5. Ekaja - For Shudras - Only One Birth - Biological

         The Once Born Castes

      6. Dwija - For B K V - Two Births

         The Twice Born Castes

         1. One Birth - Biological
         2. Second - Spiritual by Upanayan Sanskara (Sacred Thread Ceremony for Boys)

      7. Examples

         1. Ekaja - Aryans
         2. Dwija - Non Aryans

    • 5. Anuloma and Pratiloma Marriages

      6. Hyper Gamy

         Higher Varna Boy Marrying a Lower Varna Girl

      7. Hypo Gamy

         Lower Varna BoyB Marrying a Higher Varna Girl

• Ashram System

  • Meaning

    A Dwelling Place - Would Go Here When they would denounce world

    This Place is for Saints, Aesthetics and Monks

    This is a Stage in the Life Cycle of Any Individual

  • According to Traditional Hindu Society

    1. There are 4 Different Ashrams for an Individual
       1. Brahmcharya
       2. Grihastha
       3. Vanaprastha
       4. Sanyas
    2. It is based upon what conduct an Individual should have, governed by
       1. Geography - Desa / Desh
       2. Time - Kala / Kaal
       3. Immediate Surrounding - Shram
       4. Psycho Biological or Inherent Traits - Guna
    3. Every Stage of Human Life Cycle i.e the Ashram has
       1. certain specific conduct associated with it
       2. Some Duties and Functions associated with it
       3. certain restrictions on the conduct etc

  • The 4 Ashrams are - This has been only explained in the Context of Boys

    • Brahmacharya Ashram
      1. Connected with Upanayan Sanskara
      2. After this he will be following Brahmacharaya Ashram
      3. This is a Learning Phase
      4. It was only associated with 3 Varnas
      5. The Age of Accepting Thread
         1. Brahmin - 8 Years
         2. Kshatriyas - 10 Years
         3. Varna - 12 Years
         4. Shudra - NOT for Shudras
      6. Characterised by
         1. Complete Celibacy
         2. Discipline of Ashram
    • Grihast Ashram
      1. After Learning Phase
      2. Characterised by
         1. Marriage within the Same Varna
         2. Later got Transformed into the Same Caste
      3. When Men Enters into Grihast Stage
         1. Rearing of Kids
         2. Taking Care of old Parents
         3. Repaying of Debts (RINA)
      4. Hence, Responsible for fulfilment of basic needs of family
    • Vanaprastha
      1. Worldly Affairs Renounced Move Towards - Spiritual Journey
      2. In a Forest or Secluded Area - Ascetic Area
      3. Wear Simple Cloth - Just to Hide Nakedness should be the only purpose of wearing this cloth
      4. Person should be away from sexual pleasures
    • Sanyas
      1. All the Three Stages were to help to reach the Fourth and Final Stage
      2. The Stage of Moksh

• Concept of Purusharth

  1. The Concept of Ashram is very much close to concept of Ashrams

  2. Experts are of the opinion that both Purusharth and Ashram are destined towards achievement of Salvation or Moksha

  3. These are Efforts and Deliberate Actions by an Individual to achieve a Target or Goal

  4. All the Stages are ways to reach Moksha

  5. There are 4 different purusharth that are recognised

     1. Dharm

        A Direction / Code to Achieve a Goal

        Definition K N Kapadia →

     2. Artha

        Economic Resources + Material Aspects + Non Material Aspects like (Sexual Pleasures)

        Artha is Achieved through Dharm

        Definition K N Kapadia →

     3. Kama

        Kama is Outcome of Artha. All Kind of Senses and their fulfilment

        Basically to fulfil the desires and basic impulses of humans like Good Food and Sexual Gratification

        Definition K N Kapadia →

     4. The Dharm, Arth, Kam are called the Trivarga

     5. Moksha

        Basically its the End of Life

        Definition K N Kapadia →

  6. According to P N Prabhu Purusharth is “from Handout”

• Concept of Rina

  1. Religious Texts or the Dharmashastras say that Every Hindu has a Rin towards
     1. God - that god gave me a chance to become a human
     2. Parents
     3. Teachers / Gurus
     4. Saints
     5. Fellow Humans
  2. Hence every Hindu has to oblige towards various. kinds of Debts
  3. From time to time in lifecycle these Rina must be re paid by means of some deeds and rituals
  4. There are 4 Kinds of Rinas

     1. Dev Rin - Rin of God

        This is mainly performed through Yagy and Yajnas by means of rituals and sacrifice’s

     2. Pitr Rin - Rin towards Parents

        The Dharmashastras give 3 ways to repay Pitr Rin

        1. By Having Children after Marriage so that you can maintain the race and family

        2. When you are a parent, you should treat your kid nicely

           You should give love to kid and be empathetic towards them and you should teach them the dharma

        3. When Your Parents are old and sick, you should take care of them

           You should take care of your grandparents as well

     3. Rishi Rin - Towards Teachers and Saints

        Respecting your teachers and saints

     4. Manush Rina - Towards Fellow Humans

        Debt in the forms of

        1. Respecting Them
        2. Helping Them
        3. Feed & Greet the Guest
        4. To Maintain Social Order

• Concept of Karma and Re-Birth

  All from Handout

Paper 2 - Unit 3.2 - Caste System in India

• Definition and Origin of Caste System

  1. Caste is derived from the Portuguese Word Casta Meaning Lineage or Race
  2. S V Ketkar defined Caste as a Social Group having two fold characteristics of
     1. Ascribing Membership by birth, thus no entry to outsiders
     2. Endogamy - Marriage within the caste
  3. Bougle (Indologist) described

     1. Caste to a Idea of Social hierarchy and in this social hierarchy

     2. In this hierarchy one particular group is generally repulsive to other group

     3. There is a Hereditary Specialisation Associated with a Particular Caste

        Like: Gold Smith, Carpenters & Worshipping etc

• G S Ghurye - Govind Sadashiv Ghurye - Definition and Characteristics

  1. Caste System is a Collective Representation of multiple aspects. It cannot be explained by means 1 or 2 Features
  2. Ghurye Gave 6 Different Characteristics of Caste System

     1. Segmental Division of Society in a Hierarchy

        B K V S

     2. Endogamy

        Intra Caste or Within Caste Marriages

     3. Restriction on Feeding

        Commensality / Common Dine In are avoided / not appreciated particularly when distance between Varnas is more than one

     4. Restriction of Social Intercopurse

        Not allowing lower caste people to drink or take water from common well

        Shadow of Lower Caste People was not acceptable on upper caste people

     5. Restriction on Choice of Occupation

        Caste Specific Occupations were promoted

     6. Civil and Religiou Disabilities

        No Attendance in Social Gathering

        No Entry into Temple

        No Use of Religious Hymns or Chantings

• Theories Explaining Origin of Caste

  • 1. Divine Origin Theory
    2. Body of Brahma
       1. Mouth - Brahmins
       2. Hands - Kshatriya
       3. Thighs / Belly / Trunk - Vaishya
       4. Feet - Shudra
    3. This Theory Supports
       1. Doctrine of Karma - Based on Previous Incarnation or Birth
       2. Doctrine of Dharma - Based on Present Birth and Actions & Adherence to Dharma
    4. It was Rejected by Many
       1. M N S - Considered it to be a Oversimplification

  • 2. Brahmanical Theory by Abbe Dubois

    3. Brahmins are responsible for caste system as they imposed social restrictions on non brahmins, especially on shudras

    4. To

       1. Maintain Supremacy
       2. Preserve Purity

    5. They Gave Higher Status to themselves

    6. Supported by

       G S Ghurye supported the Argument of Abe Dubis believing that Brahmins played a vital role in origin of caste system

    7. Negated By

       Hutton (Indologist) Rejected this Theory on the ground that such a deep rooted social institution cannot be imposed without political powers or administrative measures which were the authority of kshatriyas

       Hence it is not easy to accept this that Brahmins convinced Non Brahmins of their Inferiority

  • 3. Racial Theory by Herbert Risley
    • Introduction
      1. in the Book : “The People of India”
      2. It Emerged due to Two Reasons

         1. Caste System originated from the Racial Difference between Aryans and Non Aryans

            Aryans from Iran Region were of Fairer Complexion and Non Aryans were of Darker Skin Tone

            This Skin Color Difference was the prime factor leading to Feeling of Racial Superiority

         2. Caste Endogamy in Occupation and Marriage

            When they Started Mating

            1. Male Aryans - Female Non Aryans → Allowed and Encouraged
            2. Male Non Aryan - Female Aryans → Not Allowed

         3. Type of Society of Both

            1. Aryans - Patrilineal
            2. Non Aryans - Matrilineal

         4. We can say that, aryans married the daughters of non aryans but didn't give them their daughter

      3. Some Aryans called the Non Aryans as Chandals who were considered to be the Lowest Class of people
    • Risley’s → Processes or Events in formation of Caste

      1. Changes in Traditional Occupation

      2. Changes in Customs

         Change with Old Traditions

      3. Migration

         Migrated Ind weren’t considered pure

      4. Religious Enthusiasts

      5. If someone is involved in religious activity he should be in that activity only

      6. Enrolling in the ranks of Hinduism

  • 4. G S Ghurye’s Theory

    5. was supporter of Brahminical Origins and Racial Differences & Aspects

    6. These Racial Difference Started with Advent of Aryans and Hence emerged in the Indo Gangetic Plains

    7. Aryans considered themselves supreme and all the non Aryans were considered as shudras

    8. as interbreeding between these populations tarted new groups emerged

       These Factors Led to Development of Castes in India

    9. As new and new differences emerged, new and new castes and sub castes emerged

    10. There was a Social & Religious Disability on Shudras

    11. His Theory is one of the most accepted theory for origin of caste system

  • 5. Nesfield’s Occupation Theory
    6. No Racial Affinity & No Racial Factor
    7. Caste System is Functional Classification for Occupation
    8. When done for Longer Periods formed the Occupational Guilds
    9. It maintained the Rituals, Sacrifices, Hymns, Yajnas - were considered very significant by the then society - that's why brahmins were given high regard
    10. Two Artisan
        1. One Working on Metal - He Gained Higher Status in Society
        2. One Working on Basket - He Gained Lower Status in Society
  • 6. Broken Man Theory by B R Ambedkar
    7. Shudras were Originally King, but later they became Slaves
    8. Shudras Belonged to Aryan Community of Solar or Suns Race
    9. When kings they were recognised as Kshatriyas. This was the Story during Indo Aryans Society started emerging
    10. There were only at that time 3 Castes - B K V
    11. Ambedkar Said that These Shudra Kings were in Continuos Tussle with Brahmins
    12. In this Tussles, Brahmins faced many tyranny of war and undignified dignities. Due to these, the later brahmins refused to give sacred thread to Shudras
    13. Meaning there was No Upanayan Sanskar
    14. Hence from here Social Degradation of Shudras Started and Hence a Fourth Varna was added

• Later Sociologist & Anthropologists gave → 8 Fold Characteristics of Caste System

  Views of G S Ghurye & M N Shrinivas in a Must

  1. Ascriptiveness - By Birth
  2. Endogamy
  3. Hierarchy
  4. Commensality - Restriction on Feeding
  5. Purity and Pollution
  6. Occupation based Socio Economic Interdependence
  7. Civil and Religious Disabilities
  8. Restrictions on Social Intercourse

• Concept of Jati and Sub Caste

  1. Given by MNS in 1950

  2. He said that the Real Unit of Caste System is Not the 4 Varnas but the Sub Caste or the Jati.

  3. It is a small endogamous groups , having a

     1. Traditional Occupation
     2. Cultural + Ritual Autonomy
     3. Localised Area of Limited Geography

  4. At About there are 2500 Jatis in India

  5. Maximum of them are Small but some are large in number and extensions

     For Example:

     1. Reddys in South India
     2. Ahir or Yadavs in North India

     They are Larger in Population and have huge extension of Geographical Presence

  6. MNS Said that in a Region or a Group. There are dominant sub castes / jatis

     1. Jats in Haryana
     2. Jatas & Rajput in Rajasthan
     3. Yadavs in UP
     4. Reddys and Kammas in Andhra Pradesh
     5. Gowdas in Karnataka

Paper 2 - Unit 5.3 - Indigenous and Exogenous processes of Socio-Cultural Change in Indian Society

• Jajmani System

  • Introduction

    1. It is the Interdependence of Various Castes
    2. Generally the Upper / Dominant Castes take various kinds of services from lower caste people for generations
    3. It's kind of a Give and Take Arrangement
    4. Terminology
       1. Service Taker / Upper Class - Jajman
       2. Service Provider / Lower Caste - Kamins
    5. In Return, Jajman Provides some goods to the Kamins, Generally it is seen that it is not a Monetary Transaction
    6. but this is not a rule, S C Dubey while studying this system in Telangana, found out that, even cash was involved in this system
    7. William Wiser was the First Anthropologists, in his book “The Hindu Jajmani System”, about the Jajmani System in India.
    8. He called Jajmani System as one of the most prominent antiquities in traditional indian social system
    9. It promotes to maintaining a balance in the society
    10. Jajmani System maintain a Kind of Re Distributive Mechanism in the Society
    11. Before LPG Reforms there were many instances of Jajmani System

  • Two Reasons for Jajmani System

    1. Due to Increased Population → Redistribution of Land → Decreased land holding size

       This is making maximum population either landless or Very Small Land Holding

       Hence they have no option but to render services and get something in return

    2. Land Revenue & Taxes after Alauddin Khilji - No Land but Taxes are High. Hence Land Holding was not Sustainable

    Hence these reasons made the Jajmani System, Functional in the Society

  • Case Study by D N Majumdar

    1. In a Village of Lucknow District
    2. Thakur & Rajputs are the Dominant Caste of the Region
    3. During Nainsanskarana (Mundan) Ceremony ; Hair Cut Ceremony
    4. It is Classical Example of Jajmani System
    5. The
       1. Brahmin - Recite
       2. Gold Smith - Ornaments
       3. Iron Smith - Ornament and Toys
       4. Carpenter - Provides Furniture for Ceremony
       5. Scavenging - Cleaning Activity

  • Benefits of Jajmani making it Functional

    1. Security of Employment & Type of Employment
    2. Social Cohesion
       1. One Family Getting Services from Multiple Families
       2. One Family Giving Services to many families
    3. Village as a Independent Unit becomes functional
    4. H Gould - Sort of Arrangement Giving Sense of Security & Employment

  • Is Jajmani System Exploitative

    1. Oscar Lewis is a Marxist, He said that Jajmani System is one of the Biggest form of Exploitation in Indian Society

       Dependency of Kamins on Jajman’s is way more than that of Jajman’s on Kamins

    2. D N Majumdar Et Al Also said that Kamins are being Exploitative

    3. Thomas Beidelman held the same way

  • Contrary Views

    1. Gould criticised their view, saying that this maintains decorum in nature

       He argued that Kamins are not forced to work and also they can work for multiple families

    2. Due to LPG & Govt Measures, the forceful and no option nature of Kamins to work for Jajmans eventually receded away

• Concept of Dominant Caste
  1. Concept was given by M N Srinivas based in his essay “Social System in Mysore Village”
  2. There was already a concept available called : African Clans and Lineages
  3. Hence this African Study guided MNS to coin the concept of Dominant Caste
  4. MNS said that it is nor a rule but more of a study of exceptions
  5. Characteristics of Dominant Caste DC

     1. They Have Land ownership

     2. Population - No is High

     3. They are more Politically Represented

     4. Not always upper castes, but fairly high position in caste hierarchy

        Generally SC & ST are NOT dominant caste

     5. Hence, Economically Prosperous

  6. Because of these Characteristics of Dominant Castes, people look up to them
  7. Criticism
     1. Fairly Large Population - In Many Areas SC ST has high population but they aren’t dominant caste
     2. Even within a DC, every one doesn't dominate but a hand few
     3. It is not necessary that power is derived from people of dominant caste, but rather a saint or politician becoming economically, socially & politically powerful may in turn lead his caste towards the path of dominancy
     4. D N Majumdar Said that, Rituals of DC people, like tilak and vibhuti used by lower caste also doesn’t give them the status of dominance
  8. Examples
     1. Reddys and Kammas in Andhra
     2. Rajput, Jats in North
     3. Yadavs & Ahirs in UP
     4. Patidars in Gujarat
• Caste Continuity & Change

  1. According to Brahmanical View Point, Traditional Viewpoint Caste is a Closed System

  2. The Status is Ascribed

  3. Caste Mobility is not allowed

  4. Class Identity can overshadow Caste Identity by means of

     1. Educational Strength
     2. Economic Prosperities
     3. Political Powers

  5. Example: According to Historian K M Panikkar, Nandas were the only true Kshatriyas, after that people usurped the status of Kshatriyas

     He cited the Examples of Mauryans, who were Shudras, who later became Kshatriyas

  6. Example: Many Researcher consider Shiva Ji to be a Shudra who later became a Kshatriya

     Hence Social Mobility is seen by means of for example Hiranyagarbha Rituals - (Check and Verify Once)

• Types of Caste Mobility

  • Horizontal

  • Vertical

    1. Lower Caste Become Upper Caste

    2. Upper Caste Become Lower Caste

       Noniyas of Eastern UP and Bihar

       They served as helpers of Brahmins, after 1 or 2 generation they became above than brahmins

• Reasons for Caste Mobility

  1. Breakdown of Jajmani System
  2. Prominence of Class Based Organisation more than Caste Based Identity
  3. Industrialisation, Westernisation, Modernisation
  4. DICCI - Dalit Indian Chamber of COmmerce and Industry
  5. Stand Up India - Promotion of SC ST & Women Community

• Criticism on Caste Mobility

  1. Social Structure is changed but Social Status is not changed
  2. In Urban Society at least, source of prestige is based on economic strength

• Weber Views on Caste

  1. According to Max Weber Commensality has vanished
  2. But Connubium of Caste Based Marriages is still a primary question

• Factors Leading to Change in Caste System

  1. Constitutional Provisions
  2. Legal Provisions
  3. Reservation & Protective Discrimination
  4. Impact of Modernisation, Globalisation, Westernisation, Urbanisation
  5. Traditional Occupation Hierarchy is broken down

• Future of Caste System

  1. Due to Politicisation of Reservation

  Conclusion

  Kingsley Davis Fore Sees possibilities of transformation from caste based indian society to class based indian society

  Caste as a Social Structure is one of the Significant Identity of Indian Society

• Sanskritisation, Modernisation & Westernisation

  • Introduction

    They are Agents of Socio Cultural Change, Changes could be that of

    Changes occur in :

    1. Class Structure
    2. Caste Structure
    3. Rituals
    4. Political Organisation
    5. Economic Relationships
    6. Marriage, Family & Kinship etc
    7. Position of women
    8. Education & Awareness

  • Sanskritisation

    • Introduction

      1. by M N Srinivas in his book “Social Change in Modern India”

      2. Defintion

         when any low caste group or tribal group started copying the socio cultural elements of upper castes or dominant caste or twice born caste

      3. Socio cultural elements constitute

         1. Lifestyle
         2. Ritual
         3. Ceremonies
         4. Dressing
         5. Food Habits

      4. The copying that occurs here, the dominant caste is regional and local

      5. Terminology

         1. The Dominant Caste → Reference Group / Model
         2. The Copying Caste → Mimic Group

      6. Other thinkers said that it is not a new phenomenon, it has been happening since long

      7. This Copying of Culture is also called : Elite Emulation by sociologist O M Lynch

         These Elites could be Social Elite, Political Elite & Economically Dominant Elite Groups which are Emulated

         Sanskritisation was called as Elite Emulation by

    • Characteristics / Impacts of Sanskritisation

      

      1. Mode of Social Mobility. Hence Improves
         1. Social Status
         2. Political Representation & Status
         3. but NOT Economic Status
      2. It is a Positional Change. This positional change can and cannot lead to Structural Change
      3. Hence, Leads to Socio Cultural Change

    • Case Study : Sanskritisation of Tribals

      If a tribal group undergoes Sanskritisation i.e for instance starts employing caste statuses in its society

      • Changes that will occur is

        1. The Society will see a division in society in its cultural autonomy hitherto Egalitarian Society

        2. From Polygamy to Monogamy

        3. Earlier no restriction on fooding & drinking habits, now there would be some restrictions

           Rigid Commensality will change

        4. Earlier Women Folklore’s say in society, will be lost or eroded in movement towards Patriarchy

        5. This newfound patriarchal elements in society will lead to Sexual Morality for Women thus leading to curbing of Sexual Independence

        6. The Tribal Practise of Bride Price may change into Dowry

    • Impact of Globalisation on Sanskritisation

      1. With Globalisation, Communication, Transportation & Technological advancements have drastically improved and so it the rate of Sanskritisation
      2. Also Now, Sanskritic Rituals are not just restricted to local or regional levels rather Groups settled at distant places are also being emulated

    • Models / Case Studies of Sanskritisation

      • Brahminic Model

        When Brahmins, Priest or Ritually Dominant caste or community is copied

        • Koris of UP & Bihar
          1. Koris of Eastern UP and Bihar copied Brahmans of that area
          2. Koris were serving the Brahmans for Multiple Centuries and due to this association
          3. they copied the customs, rituals & lifestyles of Brahmins & then gradually got status of Brahmans
          4. Later, they considered there Brahmanism more pure than the earlier ones
        • Lingayats of Karnataka
          1. Earlier Lingayats of Karnataka were from different castes
          2. when they embraced Shaivism, they were later accepted as Brahmins
        • Smiths of South India
          1. They call themselves as Vishwa Brahmins

      • Kashtriya Model

        • Khatris in Punjab (Join Punjab)
          1. they were earlier shudras
          2. at that time they patronised brahmins of that area
          3. Patronised Meaning : accepted the rituals and paid for services to brahmans
          4. Later Brahmins Conceded the Brahmans are Kshatriyas
        • Noniyas of Eastern UP
          1. They became Kshatriyas Later
        • Shivaji Maharaja & Marathas
          1. Many Historians and Sociologists consider Shiva Ji Maharaja as Shudras in Past
          2. He adopted power, went through religious rites and got the status of Kshatriyas

      • Vaish Model

        • Kunbis’ & Patidar’s of Gujarat
          1. Kunbis were Low Caste Population
          2. Patidars were more rewarded (business class)
          3. Kunbis adopted the Surnames and Sub Castes of Patidars
          4. Later Patidars & Kunbis became one group and started following the Vaishya Lifestyle of Commercial exploitation of Resources
        • Labourers from Marwar of Rajasthan
          1. Moved toward Eastern India, mainly towards Bengal & these marwari population gradually indulged themselves in trade activities
          2. Started Following a Vaish Lifestyle

    • Criticism of Sanskritisation

      • Prof Yogendra Singh
        1. This process totally ignores Non Sanskritic Rituals, Traditions & Life Styles are Ignored
        2. With the copying of Sanskritic Rituals there will be retention of earlier Non Sanskritic Rituals
      • Mackem Marriot (Indologist)
        1. He says that it is not necessary that Sanskritic Rituals will completely replace the earlier rituals
        2. Rather Sanskritic Rituals Complement the Non Sanskritic Rituals
      • D N Majumdar
        1. Mohana Village - No Urge / Inclination to Sanskritisation or Copying
        2. Even After Copying no social acceptance as upper caste

    • Conclusion

      As an agent of Socio Cultural Change, Process of Sanskritisation is a significant one. MNS was of the view point that Sanskritisation is not necessarily a short term imitation or acceptance. It can be taking multiple decades or even generation before sanskritic acceptance

  • Westernisation

    • Introduction

      1. Concept was extended to Sociology and Anthropology by MNS

      2. Westernisation is those Socio Cultural Changes, which are taking place in India since last 250 Years

         Roughly 200 Years of British Rule & 50 Years After Independence

      3. Changes Occur in & Influence is seen on

         1. Social Institution - Marriage, Family and Kinship
         2. Technology
         3. Ideology
         4. Education
         5. Lifestyle
         6. Values and Beliefs

      4. Examples of Westernisation

         1. Ban of Sati
         2. Eating on Dining
         3. Wearing of Jeans
         4. Kurta to Shirt

    • The Analogy

      1. Like Sanskritisation is mixing up of Indian Tradition with Indian Tradition
      2. Similarly Westernisation is mixing up of Indian Tradition with Western Tradition

    • Varied Facets and Features of Westernisation

      • Regional Variation of Westernisation

        Bengal / Goa - was impacted the most (Initial European Cantonment )

        HP / Rajasthan - Not so much westernisation

      • Caste Based Variation of Westernisation at a Specific Location

        1. In a specific location, Brahmins adopted some element of western culture and rejected some elements

           Adopted → Dressing, Car, TV, Tele

           Not Adopted → No Consumption of Beef & Liquor, No Hunting

      • Interdependence of Westernisation & Sanskritisation

        1. Westernisation can increase the pace of Sanskritisation
        2. they both can occur simultaneously

    • Non Material Changes due to Westernisation

      1. Ideals of Liberty, Freedom, Equality, democracy etc

    • Conclusion

      Sanskritisation and Westernisation are significant agents of Social Change. Changes in the Cultural Elements but not necessarily the Structural Elements

      Prof Yogendra Singh, considered these concepts being narrow and not fully explaining the socio cultural changes

  • Modernisation

    1. It is movement of Orthodox & Traditional Society towards modern advance and more open society
    2. Significant changes occur in Social Cultural Economic & Political Regimes
    3. Examples
       1. Monarchy → Democracy
       2. Patriarchy / Matriarchy → No Gender Discrimination
       3. Rational Thinking & Scientific Approach
       4. Modernised Ideals, Beliefs and Thinking
    4. Prof Yog Singh in his book “Modernisation of Indian Tradition” says that

       1. Rational Attitude towards issues and unbiased evaluation & interpretation of things is Modernisation

       2. Mixing up of Great & Little Tradition is Modernisation

          Concept of Great and Little Tradition by → Robert Red Field

  • Modernisation v/s Westernisation

    Westernisation is a Prominent Force behind Modernisation

    

• Great & Little Traditions

  • Introduction
    1. Term was first used by Robert Redfield
    2. He was studying a Mexican Society of Yucatan Strait
    3. He used the knowledge of Mexican Society in Indian Society
    4. He was opinion that Mexican & Indian Society are very similar
    5. His books name was “Litte Community”
  • The Concept
    1. Civilisation is something followed by Maximum Population
    2. Civilisation is formed by two types of traditions
       • Great Traditions → Reflective Few + More Dominant
         1. Reflective Few
            1. Followed by Less No of People
            2. Generally by Intelligentsia & Elite
            3. Originates from Urban Cluster
         2. More Dominance
            1. They have NP Media etc
            2. They are Influential
            3. They have Lit, Music
         3. Inference
            1. High Dominance Less Following
       • Little Traditions → Unreflective Many + Less Dominant
         1. Unreflective Many
            1. Followed by Less no of People
            2. They care commune Class
            3. Originates from Fields and Villages
         2. Less Dominance
            1. Folk Theatre
            2. Fair and Festivals
            3. Have no Influence
         3. Inference
            1. Less Dominance High Following
       • Extensions of Application

         1. By Prof Yogendra Singh

            Extension of this Concept to Indian Socity by Prof Yogendra Singh

         2. By Oscar Levis

            These Little Traditions are not limited to interactions between villagers as a universe but it is also their beliefs and interactions with Nature

• Universalisation & Parochialisation

  1. Studies by McKim Marriott on a Study in Indian in a Mathura Village of Kishangarh

  2. Universalisation

     When Great Traditions are Influenced by Little Traditions

     this is upward movement of little tradition

  3. Parochialisation

     When Little Traditions are Influenced by Great Traditions

     This is a Downward Movement of Little Traditions

     The Peasantry class takes something from the Intelligentsia

  4. Case Study of Mathura

     1. Calm Little Traditions of Lighting of Diya, became a grand festival of Diwali after Universalisation

     2. Grand Festival of Navratri filtered into the Rural Folk Lore as Nauratha

        When Villagers made Ideal of Nauratha against Goddess Durga

        This Great Tradition filtering into Little Tradition is Parochialisation

• Contribution of PYS - Prof Yogendra Singh

  1. Great & Little Tradition
     1. Given by Robert Redfield
     2. Examples Extended by PYS
  2. Universalisation & Parochialisation
     1. Given by McKim Marriott
     2. Examples Extended by PYS

• Tribe Caste Continuum

  Emerged from the need to study the relations between Tribes and Caste, that whether they are correlated or different

  • H S Risley

    was one of the first person who said that Tribes have many systems of a caste society

  • Max Weber

    stated that when a Tribe gains a territorial significance, they adopt a caste based system of society

  • G S Ghurre

    said that tribes are geographically isolated and socially backward hindu.

  • M K Bose

    said that there are multiple similarity between tribes and caste

    In both Tribes and Caste - Clan based marriages is seen

    Incest Taboo is followed

  • F G Bailey

    1. in his book “Tribe Caste and Nation” gave the concept of Tribe Caste Continuum

    2. Existence of Tribes and Caste, like in a separation of poles, is a theoretical non pragmatic concept

       

    3. Maximum times they are in between, the two

    4. There will Neither be a Pure Tribe Nor a Pure Caste

    5. Examples

       1. Hierarchy Like Caste will be found in Tribe
       2. Egalitarianism Like Tribe will be found in Caste

  • Surjeet Sinha

    1. He said there is a Tribal End & There is a Caste End

    2. Great Tradition Perspective

       • Tribal End : Tribals are Isolated to Great Traditions
         1. Isolated in Ecology, Demography, Social Relations
         2. Tribal End is Disconnected from Great Traditions of Indian Civilisation
         3. Hence, they are Incapable of Parochialisation
       • Caste End : Typically Connected to Great Traditions
         1. They have Interdependence to Great Traditions

    3. Little Traditions Perspective

       • Tribal End forms its own Little Traditions
         1. Bheels, Gonds & Bhumij of Munda Ethnic Group from Parts of WB, Orissa & Jharkhand
         2. They were earlier egalitarian societies but they later started imitating rajputs and hence on the same lines created
            1. Clan System
            2. Rules of Marriages
            3. Appointed Brahmin Priests
         3. After this Process they recognised some parts of their tribe as Lower Castes
       • Caste End in its normal existence has Little Traditions

    4. Conclusion

       The long time debate of differentiation between tribes and caste was tilted towards an Interdependence and mutual influence on each other, particularly after the studies of Bailey and Surjeet Sinha.

       It is now more or less accepted, that if not by Great Traditions ; Tribe and Caste are connected through Little Traditions. Hence, No Tribal Group can be found without features of caste system and vice versa

Paper 2 - Unit 3.3 - Sacred Complex & Nature Man Spirit Complex

• Sacred Complex

  • Thinker & Place

    | Thinker | Place | | --- | --- | | L P Vidyarthi | Bodh Gaya, UP | | Makhan Jha | 1. SC of Janakpur, Nepal 2. SC of Kashi, UP 3. SC of Kathmandu, Nepal | | B N Saraswathi | 1. Holy Circuit of NIMSAR, Goa 2. SC of Kashi, UP |

  • by L P Vidyarthi

    • Sacred Religious Affinity

      1. Tangible - Temple, Idol
      2. Non Tangible - Meditation, Prayers, Chanting

    • Components of Sacred Complex → Reflects the Collective Value of Society → Reflects the Civilisation

      1. Sacred Centre - Geographical Location

      2. Sacred Performance - Activities Involved (Rituals, Rites, Offerings, Prayers, Chantings, Yajnas, Yagya)

         Combination of all these things

      3. Sacred Specialist

         1. Priests, Monks, Sacred Singers

         2. Maintain a Distinct Lifestyle

            Looks, Attire, Residence Area

    • Importance of Sacred Complex

      1. They are Vehicles of Civilisation
      2. Reflect the Value System of an Individual
      3. Centre for Integration of Society between Different Strata of Society
      4. There will be mixing of Great & Little Traditions by means of Universalisation & Parochialisation

    • Hypothesis by Vidyarthi on Sacred Complex

      Continuity + Combination + Change = Gradual Transformations

    • Sacred Complex is a Broad Term, which can be further subdivided into sub-units

      

      1. The largest Unit in a Sacred Complex will be a Kshetra
      2. Kshetra will have different Zones
      3. Zones will have Segments
      4. Segments will have Clusters
      5. Clusters will have sacred Centres
      6. An Example of Centres can be
         1. Tree, Temple, Idol, Pond

    • Observations by L P Vidyarthi in a Sacred Complex

      1. Some Religious Texts will be promoted & Some Religious Texts will be demeaned

  • by Makhan Jha

    1. He Studied the Sacred Complex of Janakpur, Nepal
    2. Vidyarthi + Trans Boundary Acculturation

  • by BN Saraswathi

    1. Difference between Sacred Specialists
       1. NIMSAR, Goa - Non-Brahmins
       2. Kashi - Brahmins
    2. Hence,
       1. Sacred Performances are not restricted to upper-caste people
       2. Sacred Complex is not a Brahminical Monopoly
       3. Acts & Represents of Civilisation

  • Conclusion

    B N S argued that the Sacred complex may appear as predominantly a brahmin complex, but it is much bigger organisations & traditions, involving non-brahmins equally.

    Hence, Sacred Complex Represents Indian Civilisation

• Nature Man Spirit Complex

  • Back Ground

    1. NMSC by LPV in his book “The Maler: NMS Complex in a hill tribe of Bihar”; 1963
    2. Maler Tribe is of Raj Mahal Hill

  • The Concept

    

    • Nature → Natural Environment & Resources

      1. Live in Hilly Area & Forest

      2. Shifting Cultivation (Khallu) → of Maize Crop

      3. Forest, Khallu & Hills are protectors of Malers and have high regard for Natural Resources because they have

         Seen other tribes of nearby plains facing drought and food shortage

      4. A Good Maler is someone, who practises agriculture of Maize by Khallu

      5. Mahua is a Natural Plant used for Intoxication found in their Natural Environment

    • Man → Society & Social Institutions

      1. Everything of Social Behaviour including Sexual Behaviour is governed by the resources of the Surrounding
      2. Example
         1. Less Water Availability - No Bathing
         2. Their primary food base is Crops but sometimes when the crop is not good in a year they may shift to fruits or non-vegetarian food (buffalo/cow) etc
         3. No More number of Kids - In Years of Less Produce
      3. Mahua is used by these people from Nature and acts as a form of entertainment for them
      4. They have an attitude of animosity towards other tribes in the plains

    • Spirit → Gossaiyans

      1. A Belief that these Gossaiyans can be either

         1. Happy - Benevolent - Soft on Tribe
            1. Produce will be Good
            2. Water Body will not Dry
            3. Fewer Deaths
         2. Not Happy - Malevolent - Hard on Tribe
            1. There will be Abortions
            2. Calamities
            3. Produce will not be good

         from the Maler’s itself

    • Important Points

      1. Life of Maler = Complex Interplay between these three

         These Three are Intertwined, Interdependent, Interconnected

      2. Due to British Exploitation in the past, these tribes have grown reluctant towards outsiders and especially the Government

  • NMS Complex Studies by Others

    Nature Man Spirit Complex was extended to other Tribal Groups also and was studied by different scholars

    All these studies established that NMS Complex was an important and useful tool in studying these populations

    | People | Tribs | | --- | --- | | Sandhwar | Korwars of CG JH Region | | R K Sinha | Pando of CG JH Region | | Sahay | Great Nicobari of A&N Island |

  • Conclusion

    NMS by LPV later became one of the prominent method used by Anthropologists for Formulation and Implementation of Developmental Programs and Policies for Tribals and Forests Dwellers

Paper 2 - Unit 3.4 - Impact of Buddhism, Jainism, Islam & Christianity on Indian Society

From Handwritten Handouts of Sir

• Impact of Buddhism

  • Introduction

    Buddhism emerged as a challenge to Brahminical Supremacy, Caste Based on Inequalities.

    Also due to its emphasis on Ahimsa (Non-Violence), Peasantry, Lower Caste People, Shudra, Untouchables and even Vaishyas became disciples of Buddha.

    Buddhism allowed the entry of women into the Sangh.

    It gained popularity due to Magadhi & Pali

    The Craze of Buddhism gradually declines in India but mainly became popular outside of India.

  • Impact on Social Life

    • 1. Impact on People from Outside
      2. There was a mixing up of Social Life
      3. Prevented People from Outside India from Identity Crisis
    • 2. Impact on Lower Caste People
      3. Buddhism Rejected Caste Hierarchy
      4. This Impacted and Accommodated Lower Caste Populations
      5. Caste Based Inequality was a Bit Diluted, but it was for a short duration
    • 3. Impact on Vaishyas
      4. After Continuous request and argument Vaishya's weren't able to get a higher status
      5. but buddhism gave the status hitherto not present

  • Impact on Economic Life

    • 1. Impact of Cattle Economy
      2. Buddhism prohibited animal sacrifice
      3. This in turn led to Cattle Buffer being re distributed in the lower economic strata of society
      4. which in turn contributed to their economic & societal respect
    • 2. Impact on Foreign Trade
      3. due to accommodative nature of buddhism, foreign population was easily induced into buddhism preventing them from Identity Crisis
      4. This led to Import and Export of Products
      5. Which in Turn Led to Flourishment of Trade and Commerce
      6. Which in Turn Led to Urbanisation

  • Impact on Political Life

    • 1. Impact on Other Countries

      Guiding Principles of Buddhism were → Peace at any cost & Compromise with Invaders and Enemies

      This Led to International Percolation of Buddhism

    • 2. Impact on Representation of People

      Other Class and Caste were given representation hitherto not represented

    • 3. Impact on Women Representation

      Buddhism allowed Women in Decision Making & in Sangha

    • 4. Impact on Process of Justice

      More Democratic Principles were employed in the process of Dispute Resolution in Society

      Voice of the Mass was being heard for the first time

  • Impact on Religious Life

    • Impact on Idol Worship

      According to Jadunath Sarkar, in 72 AD with King Kanishka & Emergence of Mahayana Buddhism, Idol Worship began in India for the First Time

    • Impact on Monastic Code

      Though one of the reason attributed to downfall of buddhism is its processed and organisation being similar to hinduism

      Buddhism is appreciated for creation of a Separate Fraternity of Monks thus leading to creation of Monastic Code

      It had 3 main components

      Chaitya - Place of Worship

      Vihara - Place of Residence

      Stupa - Place of Monks Cremations Ash Symbols

    • Impact on Language of Religion

      Earlier dominance of Sanskrit restricted the percolation of religious knowledge in masses

      But Preaching of Buddha in Pali and Magadhi appealed to masses

  • Impact of Art & Architecture

    Chaitya Vihara Stupa Pillars

  • Conclusion

    Various Historians, Philosophers & Later Sociologists and Anthropologists were of the opinion that buddhism was an offshoot of Hinduism & these two cannot be demarcated very effectively.

    Religious Philosopher and Historian Ram Swaroop argued that these two are Intertwined and Coiled. When Decoiled they will loose basic theme of belief

    He maintained that Buddhism forms various ethos based on Hinduism and Hinduism is also affected by buddhism.

    This is the reason why Impact of Buddhism and its intensity was not prolonged

• Impact of Jainism

• Impact of Islam

  P K Kar suggested about mixing up of religious preachings of Hinduism and Islam, through Hindu and Sufi Saints

  Denounced caste based divisions and focused on devotional worship

• Impact of Christianity

Paper 1 - Unit 2.3 - Marriage

• Definition & Universality of Marriage

  Points to Note

  1. These Definitions are not 100 percent accurate
  2. All Definitions have some criticism

  Definitions

  • 1. Seligman

    • Defintion

      Marriage is a Union between a Male and a Female, such that the Children which are born to this women are considered to be legitimate

    • Criticism

      This Definition Doesn’t Consider

      1. Polygamous Marriages
         1. Polygyny & Polyandry
         2. Ex : Toda
      2. Adopted Children
         1. Ex : Modern Society
      3. Nuers of Africa Pritchard
         1. If husband dies
         2. women marries another women
         3. for kids help of friend or a women
  • 2. GP Murdock

    • Defintion

      Marriage is a universal institution involving three things

      1. Resident Co Habitation
      2. Economic Co-operation
      3. Nuclear Families

    • Criticism

      1. Nayyars of Kerala
      2. Nuclear Family not a Norm Now
  • 3. Kathleen Gough

    • Defintion

      Marriage is a Established Relationship between a women and one or more person and in such arrangement the child born to this women enjoys full birth status rights like any other member of the society

    • Criticism

      1. Polygyny → 1 Male Multiple Female → was not explained by this Definition
      2. Azande of Sudan - Homosexual Not Covered
  • 4. Westermarck

    • Defintion

      Marriage is a ritually recognised institution between a man and a women living together and recognising each others mutual sexual rights

    • Criticism

      1. Rituals → Contractual Marriages without any ceremonies
      2. Nayars of Kerala → Couple is not Staying together
      3. Mutual Sexual Rights → Extra Marital Sexual Rights are not a Taboo

  • Universality of Institution of Marriage

    Marriage as a Universal Institution can be found in maximum parts of society in maximum parts of the world

  • Conclusion

    Marriage as a Socio Cultural Institution is almost universally found in different forms but there can be exceptions in occurrence, patterns, preference of mates in marriage

    So a Universal Definition of Marriage is not easy to formulate but certain basic features of martial ties can be

    Sexual Gratification & Pro Creation

    Economic Interdependence

    Rearing of Kids

    Emotional Interdependence etc

• Types of Marriage

  • Mind Map

    

  • Monogamy

    • Monogamy

      1. Single Male is Marrying a Single Female

      2. They Settle down to form a Family & Have children

      3. Evolutionist View on Polygamous Marriages

         When Society moves from Polygamous to monogamous Marriages

         Society Moves from Savagery / Barbaric Society → Civilisations

         They Considered this state of Society to be a Advanced Stage of Societal Development

      4. Polygamous or Monogamous have nothing to do with Civilisation

      5. It is now accepted that any civilisation, any society or culture can have poly or monogamous marriages irrespective of

         1. simplicity or complexity
         2. primitiveness or Advanced
         3. Eastern or Western or Southern Societies

      6. Factors on which a Marriages Type Depends

         1. Economic Factors

            Kapauku of PNG & Pig Economy

            More Wife More Kids More Money Needed

            Bride Price concept restrict polygamous marriages

            Dowry System restrict polygamous marriages

         2. Demographic Factor

            Natures Balance is that of Every Individual will have one Partner

            Society which have skewed sex ratio and has less women, discourages polygamy

         3. Preferential Marriages like a Individual wanting to marry Parallel and Cross Cousins restricts Polygamy

    Two Types of Monogamy

    • Serial Monogamy

      • Definition

        One Spouse at a Time but Multiple Marriages are allowed

      • Example

        Western Society

        Indian Urban Centre

    • Non-Serial Monogamy

      If a Man gets Married to Women, even after death or divorce, no second marriage is allowed

      Examples

      1. Hawaiian Island
      2. Tribes of Polynesia
      3. North Eastern Tribal Pockets

  • Polygamy

    • Polygamy
      1. Multiple Partners at a time
      2. Fairly Scattered in different parts of India and World
    • Types of Polygamy

      • Polygyny

        • Definition

          One Man Multiple Women

        • Examples of Polygyny

          1. Nagas
          2. Gonds
          3. Baigas
          4. Irulas / Iruler

        • Types of Polygyny

          1. Sororal Polygyny

             One Man Marrying one or more Female who are sisters

          2. Non Sororal Polygyny

             One Man Marrying one or more females who are not related

        • Why Polygyny

          • Imbalanced Sex Ratio

            where females are more due to factors like War & Hunting etc

          • Agriculture & Pastoral Economic Systems

            More Wives → More Work

            Easy Handling of Domesticated Animals

            Water Wives of Maharashtra

          • Domestic & Household Duties

            Including Rearing of Kids or Child Rearing

          • Post Partum Sex Taboo

            Post Partum - After Delivery when mother is nursing the Newly Born, at this point of time, sexual relations are not allowed

            This Time Could be 6,9 Months or 1/2 Years

          • Patriarchy

            1. No of Wives were considered as

               more prestige to males

               more Social Recognition

            2. Why Because to have More no of Wives, More Bride Price and Maintenance was needed

            3. Aspiration for More Children

            4. Aspiration for a Male Child

            5. Hence he was considered Economically Sound

            6. Ex :

               Kapauku PNG

               Kanuri of Nigeria

      • Polyandry

        • Defintion

          One Female Multiple Male

        • Example

          1. Todas & Kotas of Nilgiri
          2. Sinhalese of Ceylon
          3. Some Nepalese Tibetan’s
          4. Botas of Ladakh and Tibet
          5. Khasas of Uttarakhand and Nepal Himalayas

        • Types of Polyandry

          • Fraternal Polyandry

            1. One Females Marries Two Brothers

            2. Examples

               Tibetans

               Todas

               Khasas

          • Non Fraternal Polyandry

            1. One Female Marries Two People who are not Related
            2. Examples
               1. Hilly Tribes of North America
               2. Hilly Tribes of Peruvian Andes

        • Why Polyandry

          • Imbalanced Sex Ration
            1. Shortage of Females
            2. Where Female Foeticide and Female Infanticide is more Prevalent
            3. Example
               1. Todas
               2. Marquesan Polynesians
          • Matrilineal Lineage of Society
            1. Khasis of Meghalaya
          • Limited Resources Like Land

            1. Ex 3 Brothers Marrying the Same Wife

               Hence Land & Property will not be Further Fragmented

            2. Examples

               Goldstein’s study of Tibetans in North Westerns Part of Nepal

               Khasas of UP

               Kinnaur Region of Himachal

            3. A Special Polyandry is practised by Todas of Nilgiri

               a Toda Women when married to a male, is automatically married to all her husbands brothers

               Bow & Arrow Ceremony for Parental Rigths

      • Cenogamy

        • Definiton

          Multiple Males & Multiple Females

          Sociologists call this Sexual Communism

          Its a Kind of Marriage leading to a Extended Family without Kids

          But it has faith within group

          If any new male or female has to be added to the group, consensus of every individual is needed

          They have no concern or issues with the Parental Rights

        • Example

          1. New Guinea
          2. Central Africa
          3. Ancient Hawaiians

        • Why Cenogamy

          1. This was to avoid internal dispute between the group
          2. Its a Sign of Hawaiian Society

• Laws of Marriage

  • Endogamy & Exogamy

    Endogamy

    • Endogamy

      Marriage within Ones own Group like

      Levis defined Endogamy as a Rule that requires a person to marry within a Social Group of which he or she is a member

    • Types of Endogamy

      1. Tribes Endogamy
      2. Religion Endogamy
      3. Caste Endogamy
      4. Sub Caste Endogamy
      5. Varna Endogamy
      6. etc

    • Why Endogamy

      1. To Maintain Cultural Similarity
      2. To Maintain & want to be recognised with same social status and identity
      3. To Keep Wealth & Property within the Same Group, Especially when the Group has lesser populations
      4. Ethnocentric Sentiments
      5. To Maintain Unity & Solidarity in the Group
      6. To Maintain Racial Purity

    Exogamy

    • Exogamy

      When People marry outside ones own group

    • Examples

      1. Gotra Exogamy in India

      2. Village Exogamy

         1. North & North West India
         2. Haryana & Punjab

      3. Village / Group of Village Exogamy

         Ex : Khap Exogamy

      4. Pravara Exogamy

         Siblings meaning descendants of a common saint

      5. Sapinda Exogamy

    • Why Exogamy

      • To Avoid Inbreeding

        To Avoid Increase in

        1. Genetic Disorders
        2. Hereditary Disorders

      • It is Good for Health & Heredity

        1. Less Frequency of Genetic Disorders

      • to Avoid Incest

        Developed as an Extension of Incest Taboo

      • To Avoid Attack on Each Other Groups

        Ex : Bimbisara & Ajatshatru Marriages

        Ex : CGM Marrying a Greek Princess

      • Levis Strauss Structuralism Alliance Theory

        French Anthropologist Levi Strauss Extended the Concept of Exogamy through Alliance Theory in Structuralism

        Marriage as an agent of Alliance

        Bringing More Families Together

  • Hypergamy & Hypogamy

    Hypergamy - Anuloma

    Hypogamy - Pratiloma

    Refer Varna System

  • Incest Taboo

    • Defintion

      1. Taboo - Not Accepted, Stigma, Prohibited

      2. Incest - Sexual Relations with Very Close or Close Relatives like

         1. Father with Daughter
         2. Mother with Son
         3. Brother with Son

      3. Incest Taboo

         When Norms Don’t Allow Sexual Relationship between Close or Very Close Relatives

      4. Difference in Range of “Closeness”

         • Geographically

           1. North India

              Cousin Marriages Not Accepted

           2. South India

              Cousin Marriages is Prevalent

              Boy Can Marry Sisters Daughter

              Girl Can Marry Mothers Daughter

         • Religiously

           Cousin Marriages Not Allowed in Hinduism but Allowed in Islam

      5. Universal Taboo

         Irrespective of Time, Location & Beliefs F&D, M&S, B&S is not allowed

    • Examples

      • Yanomami’s of in Brazil & Venezuela

        Boys → marry their cross cousins by simply calling them wives

        Girls → She will accept her cross cousin by simply calling him Husband

      • Nagas

      • Garos

      • Gonds

      • Oraons

      But these marriages will be considered as part of Incestuous in North and North Western Part of Country

    • Theories on Incest Taboo

      Not a Part of Syllabus Just to Quote in Exams

      • 1. Sigmund Freud’s Psychoanalytical Theory
      • 2. Cooperation & Alliance Theory by EB Tylor & Levi Strauss
      • 3. Inbreeding Theory

        Supported by Many Sociologist and Anthropologists

        One of the Oldest Explanations for Incest Taboo is based on Inbreeding Theory

        If Focuses on the Potentially Damaging Consequences of Inbreeding or Marrying within the Family

        People within the same family are likely to carry the same harmful genes which are lesser represented in exogamous marriages

        Recent Evidences suggest that Inbreeding also tends to Increase the likelihood of diseases that affect people later in life

        Such as Heart Diseases, Diabetes etc

        So to avoid such things & to establish better relationships with other groups Incestuous Relations became a Taboo

• Regulations of the Marriage System

  The Above Laws of Marriage can be Sub Divided into 3 different categories

  • Questions can be asked in the form of

    1. Rules Regarding Marriages
    2. Marriage Regulations
    3. Choice of Spouses

  • Summary

    

  ---

  • Proscriptive Regulations - You Should Not Marry These

    • Defintion

      These rules direct the Individuals in a Group about whom one should NOT Marry like Incest Taboo in Maximum Societies

    • Examples

      Apart from Incest Taboo, You Should Go for Something Else

    • Exception to Incest Taboo

      Princess Cleopetra of Egypt due to

      Religious Rituals && Property Retention

      She married her brother & after her brother died, she married her another brother

    • Refer about Alliance Theory & Concept of Wife Givers and Wife Takers

  • Prescriptive Regulations - You Can Marry These Group

    • Defintion

      Which are directing the Individuals in the Group like preference of Endogamous & Exogamous Marriages

    • Examples

      1. Endogamy - Can Marry within this

         Caste & Sub Caste Endogamy

      2. Exogamy - Can Marry outside this

         Gotra Exogamy

  • Preferential Regulations - These are in Preference / Priority

    • Defintion

      Under these set of rules a person is expected to prefer certain specific categories of relatives or kins over others as a choice for Marriage

    • Types of Preferential Rules

      • Cousin Marriages

        • Cross Cousin Marriages

          • Meaning

            Father Sisters Kids

            Mothers Brothers Kids

          • Examples

            Cross Cousin Marriages is the Most Common form of Preferential Regulations

            1. North Eastern Tribes Like Garo, Khasi, Nagas, Karbi's,
            2. Baigas
            3. Arunta Tribe of Australia
            4. Srilankai

          • Types of Cross Cousin Marriages

            • Symmetrical

              Fa Si Kids && Mo Br Kids are in Equal Priority

              Ex : Assam & Deccan & South India

            • Non Symmetrical

              Out of Fa Si Kids && Mo Br Kids, If one is preferred

              Generally Mothers Brothers Kids are Preferred

          • Reasons - In Favour

            1. Wealth is Regulated
            2. There are well known faces
            3. There is No Element of Surprise
            4. Choice of Parents will live near to family

          • Reasons - Against

            Challenges of Inbreeding

        • Parallel Cousin Marriages

          • Meaning

            Fathers Brothers Kids

            Mothers Sisters Kids

          • Examples

            Less Prevalent than Cross Cousin Marriages Particularly in Tribal Society

            1. Semitic Arabs - Imp Ex

               Semitic - Eastern Coast of Mediterranean is called Levant having a type of Language called Semitic

               This Semitic has two types

               Semitic Arabs

               Semitic Hebrons

            2. RIANGS of Tripura - Imp Ex

            3. Bedouins of Arabs

            4. Muslims Groups in India

          • Types

            Example of Symmetrical and Asymmetrical Instances can be given

          • Reasons - Favour

            Keep the Man Power Intact within the Group

            Ex : Marrying Fathers Brother Daughter - Man Power Remains Intact

            Ex : Marrying Mother Brother Daughter - Family is Divided

          • Reasons - Against

            Challenges of Inbreeding

      • Levirate Marriages

        • Meaning

          When a Widow Marries a Deceased Husbands Brother, It is called Levirate Marriages

        • Examples

          1. Natives of Australia
          2. Kukis of Arunachal and Nagaland
          3. Muslims in South Asia
          4. INCAS in Central America
          5. Also found in Maximum Tribal Societies of North Eastern and Eastern India

        • Type of Levirates

          • Junior Levirate

            Marrying Younger Brother of Husband

            Marrying Senior Brother of

          • Senior Levirate

      • Sororate Marriages

        • Meaning

          When a Widower is Marrying his deceased wife’s sister

        • Examples

          1. Non Tribal Societies of Northern Plains
          2. Himalayan Region

        • Types of Sororate

          • Junior Sororate - With Younger Sister of Wife
          • Senior Sororate - With Elders Sister of Wife

• Functions of Marriages

  • Biological Function

    1. Sexual Gratification

       Examples

       1. Monogamous Marriages allow Sexual Relationship with One Partner
       2. Polygamous Marriages allow Sexual Relationship with Multiple Partner

    2. Procreation

  • Socialisation

    • Meaning

      Marriage as an Institution or family at Large are responsible for Primary and Secondary Socialisation (Explained by Sociologists G H Meat)

    • Types of Socialisation

      1. Primary Socialisation

         Socially Accepted Behaviour & Norms in the Environment of Family

      2. Secondary Socialisation

         Socially Accepted Behaviour & Norms followed by Individuals with Society as Environment (Generally Outside the Family)

  • Social, Political & Economic Ties

    between different groups by the concept of Wife Takers and Givers according to Alliance Theory by LS

  • Economic Functions between

    1. Husband Wife
    2. Husband - nWives
    3. Wife - nHusbands

• Ways of Acquiring Mates in Tribes

  • Introduction

    Tribal Populations use different Criteria for Marriage within or Outside of their Group. In Tribal Societies Marriage is more of a social or civil contract involving less of religious rituals and rites

  • Methods

    • 1. Probationary Marriages

      • Example

        1. Kukis of Arunachal & Nagaland

      • Meaning

        In this type of Marriage, a Tribal Boy Lives in the house of his potential mate for weeks or months with her parents

        Thereafter if they like and Finalise Each Other, they may enter into the Wedlock

        If marriage is not Solemnised, the boy will have to pay compensation to girls family. So before marriage, the boy is like a Probationer in would be father in Laws house

        Anyone Boy or Girl can say No

    • 2. Marriage by Capture

      • Example

        1. Juangs, Birhors & Kharias of CNP

      • Meaning

        This is one of the Most Popular Method Amongst Indian Tribes, this capture can be ceremonial or forceful.

        Sometimes to avoid Marriage Payments and restriction from the parents, this physical capture is pre arranged and often takes place in festivals, markets etc

        Marriage is performed after the capture with a simple yet forceful “Smear Vermillion” (Mang Main Sindoor Bharna)

      • Types

        1. Ceremonial
        2. Forceful
    • 3. Marriage by Trial

      • Example

        Bhils of Madhya Pradesh

      • Meaning

        In these types of marriages the courage and bravery of young man is appreciated and recognised by means of some typical task. If the boy comes out successful in that, he is free to marry the girl

    • 4. Marriage by Purchase

      • Examples

        Khonds, Ho, Mundas

      • Meaning

        Any form of Marriage Payment is a Part of this

        The Man Pays the Bride Price to the Girls Parents as his wife, this bride price can be in the form of

        1. cash or kind
        2. Grains or Cattle

        The Grooms father will pay the Bride Price to the Brides Father in a Traditional Ceremony

    • 5. Marriage by Exchange

      • Examples

        Khonds, Juangs, Santhals, Bhoomiyan / Bhoomiya of Chota Nagpur Plateau

      • Meaning

        in this form of marriage, if a sun and daughter or marriageable age are available in two families or groups they may exchange the daughters

        No Marriage Payment is Involved in this type of Arrangement

    • 6. Marriage by Services

      • Example

        Baigas and Gonds

      • Meaning

        Some Tribals have evolved the solution of Hire bride Price to the Girls Parents particularly grooms family which are economically weaker

        A Boy can avoid the Bride Price by Serving the Would be Father in Law as a Worker or Servant doing

        Agricultural Activities

        Fishing

        Taking Care of Animals

    • 7. Marriage by Elopement

      • Example

        Santhals, Bhoomiya, Khonds, Juangs in Eastern Tribal Belt of India

      • Meaning

        a boy and a girl stay in a dormitory after eloping together and after sometime they can inform the parents and the marriage is accepted

        marriage payment can be easily avoided by this

    • 8. Marriage by Intrusion

      • Example

        1. Ho Tribes & Birhors of CNP
        2. Juangs and Khonds Also

      • Meaning

        This is a sort of reverse mechanism of marriage by capture where in a girl is desiring to marry a particular tribal male and goes to his house stay without their will

        She forcibly thrusts herself on them, despite of non acceptance

        Here she is subjected to humiliation, refusal of food & often physical torcher but inspite of all these, if she sticks to the marriage, she is accepted as wife by the boy

    • 9. Divorce

      • Example

        All Tribal Societies

      • Meaning

        Dissolution of Marriage in Tribals is based in certain set of rules which cannot be abrupt or random

        G P Murdock has mentioned a number of recognised grounds for divorce in tribal societies like

        1. Adultery
        2. Grave Diseases
        3. Impotency
        4. Sexual Unwillingness
        5. Heavy Drinking
        6. Mistreatment
        7. Quarrelsome Behaviour

        If both the families agree, marriage is dissolved and divorce is approved. Both Boy & Girl are free to have new mates

    • 10. Inheritance of Widows

      • Example

        Sema Nagas

      • Meaning

        From the View of Tradition in Tribal Societies or personal choices, unmarried boys do not usually prefer to marry a widow.

        On routine widows are preferred to be married with widowers, no bride price is to be paid for widow remarriage

        as a customary practise, the Sema Nagas as a matter of Obligation marries his fathers widow, other than his own mother, this type of marriage is preferred to inherit property of father along with responsibilities which the father was fulfilling when he was alive

• Marriage Payments - Add from Handout

• Changing forms of Family → Changing forms of Marriage

Paper 1 - Unit 2.4 - Family

• Nuclear Families

  2 Adult Members of Opposite Sex with their Unmarried Kids

• Definition

  • G P Murdock*

    He Studied Family in his book Social Structure and was of view that family is as a social institution is all most universal

    Within these occurrences “Nuclear Family” will be the most common one

    In the Words of G P Murdock, Family is a Social Group characterised by

    1. Common Residence or Habitation
    2. Economic Interdependence and Cooperation
    3. Reproduction

    It includes, Adult Members of both the Sexes, at least two of whom maintain a socially recognised or approved social relationship and the group has one or more kids which can be biological or adopted

  • Burgess and Loke

  • Machaiver

  • Kathleen Gough*

  • Diana Gittins

• Characteristics of Family

  • Economic Cooperation

    Division of Labour

    Modern Families Boundary of Division is Labour is diminishing

  • Marital Ties

    Same Sex

    Other Sex

  • Nomenclature Associated with the Family

  • Common Habitation

• Universality of Family

  1. Proposition

     1. In Any Kind of Society
     2. In Any Geography
     3. There will be one or more type of Family

  2. Counter Argument for Co Habitation

     1. Nairs of Kerala (by Kathleen Gough)

     2. Talli Rights before Puberty

     3. Visiting Husbands / Sandbhanams, Females can have to 12 Visiting Husbands

        No Life Long Union, No Cohabitation, No Economic Interdependence, No Moral Duty

  3. Conclusion

     Diana Gittins was a Feminist Scholars. She Said that Family may not be a universal institution but

     1. Relationship is Universal
     2. Sexuality is Universal
     3. Intimacy is Universal
     4. Emotional Bonds are Universal

• Types of Families

  • Mind Map

    

  • Based on Birth

    • Orientaton

      In which you are born

    • Procreation

      Family Which you will have after your marriage

  • Based on Structure or Size

    • Nuclear Family

      1. Husband + Wife + Unmarried Children

         Ex : US Society, Urban India

      2. Difference between Nuclear Family of West & India

         1. US is actually Nuclear where as Indian Nuclear Family is Nuclear and Separate only in terms of Geography

         2. Indian Nuclear Family is characterised Emotional Connect and Regular Visits

         3. US Decision Making is Independent of any influence from family

            Even in a Nuclear Family, the decision making, is generally done by elders in family mainly male

         4. After LPG, Indian Nuclear Family is moving towards Nuclear Family of US

    • Joint Family
      1. Multiple Family, Common Residence, Common Sources
      2. This is a Aspect of Traditional Hindu Society, later transcended to Indian Society as a whole
      3. Main Characteristics is Common Kitchen and Common Place of Worship
    • Extended Family

• Household & Domestic Group

  • Household

    1. Household is Parallel to Family

    2. Its a Sort of Common Residence. It is that social group which has multiple individuals, generally two or more

    3. It is two or more people connected by

       • Blood or Marital Status

         When Households are based on Blood Relations or Martial Ties, these are more or less permanent.

         There can be some temporary household for the members but or more or less they will be permanent for larger part of life

       1. Friendship
       2. Live in Relationship
       3. Hostel / Flat Sharing
       4. but now, there can be Single Person residence can be there as well

    4. There can be two type of Household

       • Nuclear Household

         Nuclear Households are typically associated with all types of societies and cultures but generally not an exclusive way of survival except some western societies. Also, an extended household will have some sort of Nuclear Householdness within that.

       • Extended

    5. Special Case

       Sociologist I P Desai & Anthropologist Irawati Karve : Within a Large Joint Family at a common residence, there can be examples of different and separate kitchens due to various

  • Domestic Group

    1. Domestic Group is a Resource Owning Group, they handle these resources by sharing common labour

    2. According to Mayor Fortes, a Prominent Sociologists gave a developmental cycle of Domestic Groups based on the Changing Dynamics.

       He gave three different phases of developmental cycle

       • Phase of Expansion

         Starts with Start of Marriage and further expands by birth of First Child and continuos to expand till the birth of last child.

         ---

         Domestic Group is Expanding & Resource is Shared

         Unless Husband is Fertile and Mother hasn’t reached Menopause

       • Phase of Dispersion

         It Starts when one of the member of the family and household is out of the activities of domestic group for educational purpose, employment or setting up a new nuclear household after marriage

         It can continue till the marriage of youngest child

         ---

         Ownership of Resources moves towards Division of Resources

       • Phase of Replacement

         It starts with ageing of parents and continues till till their death when parents become old and are left with No Stamina to perform physical activity they rely on their children to perform their function.

         In this process parents no longer take part in economic event and hence their authority declines gradually.

         Children Replace their parents as owners of economic resource in the domestic group and then again the domestic group undergoes the phase of expansion.

         ---

         Old Parents, will expect that along taking care of them, their economic labour will also be taken care

• Function of Family

  • General Sense of Functions of Family
    1. Education, Values, Socialisation = Culture
    2. Procreation, Reproduction
    3. Sexual Gratification
    4. Economic Sustenance = Social Stability
    5. Adult Personality Stabilisation by Talcott Parsons
    6. Sense of Security & Survival
  • G P Murdock in his essay “The Universal Functions of Family” gave a fourfold classification of family

    1. Sexual Gratification

       1. Family is a Legitimate way of Sexual Access. In a “Free Play” there will be a disorder in society
       2. By this arrangement this function of family, ensures social stability

    2. Procreation and Reproduction

    3. Education, Values, Socialisation

       1. By Talcott Parson

       2. Primary Socialisation - Values Given by Family

       3. Secondary Socialisation - Value Given by Friends, School and Society

       4. Ideals of Secondary Socialisation are impacted by Primary Socialisation

       5. Secondary Socialisation is also Influenced and governed by family as a Primary Socialising Unit and as a Adult Personality Stabilising Unit

          Also, Through Marriage and Emotional Support

    4. Economic Sustenance = Social Stability

• Changing Functions of Family

  • Factors that Lead to Change in Family
    • Urbanisation

      1. From Joint, Extended Family moving towards Nuclear Family

         that can lead to

      2. Changes in Economic Functions, Family is now not a specific economic unit

      3. Changes in Division of Labour

      4. Rise in Involvement of Females in Decision Making

      5. Rationalisation of thoughts - Increase in Marriages outside caste, religion, ethnicity

      6. Dilution of Traditional Patriarchal System

    • Industrialisation
      1. Rationalisation of thoughts
      2. Status in Modern Industrial Societies is more of achieved nature rather than ascribed ones
    • Modernisation
      1. Rationalisation of thoughts
    • Feminism
      1. Rationalisation of thoughts
  • Talcott Parsons View

    1. Macroscopic Function - Function is Generally being lost by Family

       1. Instead of being a unit of production

          SHG’s, Factories, Industries, Cooperatives etc

       2. Adult Personality Stabilisation

          Not only done by Family

    2. Microscopic Function - Function Retained by Family

       1. Primary Socialisation is done by Family
  • Emergence of Two Views
    1. Function of Family are Changing
    2. Function of Family have not gone obsolete, rather the function is changing and number of functions are increasing

• Feminist Perspective

  • Christine Delphy and Diana Leonard

    It affected the discipline first, earlier sociologist weren't even agreeing and understanding that there is unpaid labour

    They are prominent feminist sociologist

    Christine Delphy and Diana Leonard and many others, highlighted the economic, social, political and sexual exploitation of females within the family, village, clan or larger society

    Like Marxists, talked about the exploitation of working class in capitalist society

    Feminists Started Talking about Exploitation of Females in all the Spheres, including family

  • David Cooper

    Ideological Conditioning Explained by David Cooper was based on the argument that the ideology and conditioning imparted by family is exploitive in nature. The Efforts of females is almost submissive and is NOT getting accounted for.

  • Changes in Family Structure due to Feminism

    all these perspectives developed in sociology, socio cultural anthropology and economics. They not only influenced the basic structure and functioning of familial system but also led to changes in social groups at large

    1. Increased Equality and Say in Decision Making due to dilution of patriarchy
    2. Reduced occurrence of repeated pregnancies or deliveries ; leading to improved health standards of females, thus restricting family size
    3. Increased Awareness or Literacy Increased Participation in Economic Activities Increased Family Incomes
    4. Reduction in Emotional Connect in Mother & Children according to study by Mackintosh on American Societies
    5. Increased Awareness and contribution in family income, increased the status of women in a family. Hence, there are incidence of reduced domestic violence
    6. Overall Improvement in Health Standards, Educational Standards, Political Representation and presence at higher domains of Economic System etc are all reflected due to changes starting at grassroots family level.

Paper 1 - Unit 2.5 - Kinship

• PYQP Topics

  

• What do we study in Kinship ?

  1. How the Relations are made ?
  2. Which Relations are more important ?
  3. What are the terms used for various relationships ?

• What is the Difference between Kinship and Genealogy ?

  1. Genealogy is a type of Lineage and Family Tree which can be part of Genealogical Studies

  2. Kinship doesn't start from our forefathers but from the person in present. Hence we can say that it is more focused on the present relationships

  3. British Social Anthropologist Robin Fox tried to differentiate between Genealogical and Kinship Studies

     He was Studying Tory Islanders, North West of Ireland. Here he came up with the approach that the study of lineage should not be limited to either Genealogical or Kinship Studies

     He Stressed upon the interconnectivity of Genealogical and Kinship Studies

• What are terms used in the study of Kinship ?

  1. Centre point of study is called an “Ego”
  2. It is based on primarily based on two things
     1. Family of Orientation - Relations Individual has
        1. Family that you take birth in
     2. Family of Pro Creation - Relations Individual acquire
        1. Family that you make

• What are the various Definitions of Kinship ?

  1. Radcliffe Brown

     Kinships Terms and Ties are signpost of Interpersonal Conduct

  2. C L Strauss

  3. Macklinen

• What are the types of Kinship ?

  • Blood Relations (Family Orientation) - Consanguineous Relations

    • Detail

      Those who share the Common Blood and Common Ancestors

      1. Grandparents
      2. Parents - Father Mother
      3. Kids
      4. Siblings

    • Criticism of Definition of Consanguineous Marriages

      Talking from Biological Perspective, Common Blood is not a very defined term

      Rather to be scientifically correct we could say Consanguineous marriages have common / matching Genotype

    • Adopted Child is

      A Socially Consanguineous Realtions

      But not a Biologically Consanguineous One

    • Ego

      Ego is an individual for whom the Kinship relationship are being studies

  • Marital Ties (Procreation) - Affinal Relations

    Those who come in relation due to Marriage

    1. Father & Mother in Law
    2. Other In Laws

• What are the symbols used in Kinship Diagram ?

  

• What are Principles of Descents ?

  • What is Descent

    Kinship Ties acquired through Parentage

    Line of Descent is a series of relations, where one is born from the previous one

    These can be either Patrilineal or Matrilineal Societies

  • Principles of Descent 1

    Distribution of Descent System is Different in Different Societies and is mainly governed by Production and Consumption patterns prevalent over there

    Mainly, Hunting Gathering or Savagery is associated with Patrilineal Descent System

    Horticulture Societies have evolved to be a Matrilineal System

  • Principle of Descent 2

    Descent acts as means for an individual to

    1. Assert the Rights
    2. To fulfil duties
    3. Certain Privileges associated with Descent
    4. Generally, a Status attached with a Descent

• What are the Types of Descents ?

  • Mind Map

    

  • Unilineal Descent : Patrilineal OR Matrilineal Descent

    1. It is also called Unilateral Descent
    2. It is more common in Non Western Societies
    3. This Type of descent gives Membership Acquired by Birth
    4. Studying a Descent Group or an Individual based on One Line (NOT Both)

    ---

    • This one Line can be, either

      • Male Line - Patrilineal Descent
        1. Male Socially and Culturally Significant
        2. Males have decision making power
      • Females Line - Matrilineal Descent

        1. Females are Socially and Culturally Significant

        2. Both Males and Females have decision Making power

           The Male is NOT Father or Husband of Ego

           But More Say and Power is of Females

    • Two Types of Descent Groups are formed due to these descents

      In Any of Patrilineal or Matrilineal type of Unilineal Descent, Two Measure Types of Descent Groups are formed → Lineage and Clan

      • Lineage

        Lineage within a Unilineal Descent Group are all descendants of a common ancestor or founder who lived four to six generations back. The Kinship Ties amongst the members can be exactly stated based on genealogical studies

      • Clan

        A clan is an extended form of unilineal kinship group having multiple lineages whose members claim a common descent from some remote ancestor usually some legendary, charismatic and mythological figure

        For Example Individuals in Bheel Clan consider themselves as descendants of Goddess Parvati

    • Types of Unilineal Descent are

      • Patrilineal Descent - More Common

        Male Lines

        GGF → GF → F → Son+Daughter

        Example:

        1. Munda Ethnic Group
        2. Santhals
        3. Non Tribal in Max Parts of India
        4. Hans of China
        5. Yoruba’s of Nigeria

      • Matrilineal Descent

        1. Mothers Lines, Women have the considerable power but not exclusive authority, generally brothers share the authority

           Not Husband or Father

        2. Mainly Started with Horticulture Societies

        3. Examples

           1. Mosuo of China
           2. Many North Eastern Tribes Especially Khasis of Meghalaya
           3. Trobriand Islanders
           4. Nayars of Kerala

      • Parallel Descent

        1. Very Rare form of Descent in which males reckon their descent from Male Lines and Females reckon their descent from Female Line
        2. “Sahas of Colombia” studied by Jana Safer are the only known example of parallel descent

  • Bilineal Descent : Patrilineal AND Matrilineal Descent

    • Introduction
      1. It is also called Cognatic Descent
      2. Non Unilineal is based on descent from both the Lines, it is less Prevalent and is not well defined based on the membership that is whether patrilineal or matrilineal
    • There are Two Types of Non Unilineal Descent
      • Bilineal / Double Descent
        • Example
          1. Yako’s of Nigeria
          2. Toda’s - By Means of Buffalo Economy
             1. Buffalo - From Matrilineal
             2. Grass Pasture & Land - From Patrilineal
          3. Jo / Ju / Hoansi of Kalahari
        • G P Murdock Views
          1. Other Anthropologist Says that this is very less Prevalent
          2. Whereas G P Murdock said roughly 1/3rd of Society follow this
          3. This was an opinion contrary to max anthropologist & G P Murdock said that these can be understood through in depth understanding through various culture
      • Bilateral

        1. This Descent is Horizontal

        2. Here Father and Mother Equally Important and Unimportant for a person

        3. There relations are only visible for some point of time for a year

        4. Due to these Ceremonies, Marriages, Functions, they celebrate the common ancestors

        5. Example: Chipewyan of Subarctic Canada

        6. Kindred - That Particular Group or Relative who are called for some specific purpose

        7. Here There is only one Generation under Study

        8. When Bilateral Descent is being followed Societies are not observing vertical or lineal descent groups.

           Here the Reckoning of Kinship is Horizontal like Kindred including Bilateral set of Relatives

        9. Kindred is a kind of Social Security in Adverse Situations

        10. Here focus is more of Achieved Status

  • Ambilineal Descent

    1. It is based on Choice that you want to take surname and inheritance from
       1. Fathers Father
       2. Fathers Mother
       3. Mothers Mother
       4. Mothers Father
    2. Here it is a choice of being in a particular descent
    3. Example : Samoan Islanders

• What are the Forms of Descent Groups

  • Relation

    Moieties have Phrateries, Phratries have Clans, Clans have Lineage

  • Relation between Moiety & Phratry

    

  ---

  In Order

  • Moiety - More Heterogeneous Term with Homogenous Phratry
    1. Its a French Term Meaning One Half. Hence, Moiety means having broadly two descent groups
    2. Moieties are two broad groups within One
    3. Example : Two Different Moiety of
       1. Todas - Teivali & Tarthars
          1. Teivali’s are Fully Matrilineal like Traditional Todas
          2. Tarthars have matrilineality based on situation
       2. Ahl e Bait - Hasani & Husaini - Self Example
       3. Monsangs of Manipur
    4. Here one Moiety is Toda
    5. But they cant tell that how they reached upto these division
    6. People of India Project - More than 60 Moieties are there in India Most of them are from North East
  • Phratry - More Heterogeneous Phratries with More Homogenous Clans

    1. Phratry Means Brotherhood. They are Examples of Near by Groups having Brotherhood

    2. Phratry is a Unilineal Descent Group having multiple clans in it

    3. Members belonging to different clan within the same fratery are having more closeness as compared to members of different clans under another fratery within the same Moiety

    4. Classical Example of Phratery in India

       1. Muria Gonds of Central India - When Some Phrateries Dies, they don’t cry, as they consider they have gone to their phrateries

    5. These Phratries are called as Vansh

    6. 5 different examples of Vansh are

       1. Naag Vansh (Snake)
       2. Kachim Vansh (Tortoise)
       3. Bagh Vansh (Tiger)
       4. Bod Vansh or Bod Mink (Fish)

       If a person is belonging to any of these frateries, they cannot hurt, hunt, kill or consume these Phrateries

    7. Examples India

       1. Ao-Nagas of Nagaland
       2. Rahas of Assam

    8. Examples World

       1. Hopi Indians - This is ONE Phratry within their Moiety

          They have Phratry within them

       2. Crow Indians

       3. Cree Indians

    9. Types

       1. Matri Phrateries
       2. Patri Phrateris

    10. People of India Project Studies Around 150 Phrateries in India

  • Clans
    1. Clan is typically consisting of multiple lineages that is an extended unilineal descent group whose members claim common descent from some distant ancestors who can be a legendary, mythological figure or a charismatic leader.
    2. All Clans will be having Similarity within Common Larger Groups
       1. They have some sort of common geographical nature in larger area
       2. They have common heritage, way of survivals, rituals
       3. Some will have Clan Endogamy or Exogamous Clans
    3. Cohesion - They Merge At
       1. Religious Cohesion - They may have different sources
       2. Political Cohesion - Yaad Rakhne ke Liye, Caste Based Voting
    4. Examples World
       1. Winnebago Red Indians is an Indian have 12 Clans
       2. Teivali has 12 Clans
       3. Tarthars has 6 Clans
    5. Examples India
  • Lineage

    • Introduction

      A Unilineal Kinship Descended from a Common Ancestor / Founder who lived 4 to 6 Generation ago where relationship amongst others can be described in genealogical terms

      There can be different minor lineages within a larger population which may combine to form a major lineage

      There can be different segments of a broader lineage

      

    • Concept of Purity and Pollution in Lineage

      If Exogamy is followed in Lineage, It can add up polluting characteristics, which will disturb the birth and death cycle

      If Sanctity and Purity is maintained through exogamy, ideal birth and death cycle will continue.

    • Various Features on Lineage

      1. According to Mayor Fortis Lineage as a Miniature Society

      2. According to Evans Pritchard Lineage is a Egalitarian System Securing Survival of Individual and Groups. This can be

         1. Patrilineage
            1. Nuers of Sudan
            2. Witoto Red Indian of America
         2. Matrilineage
            1. Khasi
            2. Garo
            3. Kuki
            4. Nairs of Kerala

      3. As a Psychological & Social Unity

         Members are united through a common mental framework that we belong to a particular lineage

      4. As a Medium of Security

         1. Social Security
         2. Economic Security

      5. As a Unit of Co Operation

         Members work & fight together

         They face the adversities together

    • Segmentary Lineage

      • Introduction

        When Larger Unit of Lineage can be further sub divided into smaller Lineages, it is called Segmentation of Lineage

      • Schema

        

      • Concept of Segmentary Lineage

        Segmental Lineage Organisation is based on the principle that genealogically closer groups can come together when they have to fight / oppose a more distant group or lineage

      • Features of Segmentary Lineage

        1. Security System for its members

        2. Acts as a Defence Force, against another groups

        3. They share a collective responsibility of resources

           For Example : Grasslands and Water Reservoirs in Nuers of Africa

      • Conclusion

        Segmentary Lineage in Nuers of Sudan studies by Evans Pritchard is one of the most classical example of a decentralised and egalitarain segmental lineage system

• Descent, Filiation & Complementary Filiation

  Concept of Filiation

  • Introduction

    Filiation is a Connection or Bond between Successive Generations.

    For Example, Parents connected with Kids

    Grandparents connected with Kids

  • Schema of Filiation Studies

    

  • Important Point

    In Filiation Studies, No Matter if its a Patrilineal or Matrilineal Society, there is no differentiation between Patrilineal and Matrilineal sources

    A Grandkids, connection with here Dada Dadi and Nana Nani will be considered to be same w/o any system for MatriLineal or Patrilineal Connection

  • Concept of Filial Bond

    

  • Who are Filial Bonds

    For a Person Including Him(1) + His Siblings (x)+ His Parents (2)+ His Dada Dadi (2)+ His Nana Nani (2) → They are Filial Bonds

  Concept of Complimentary Filiation

  • Schema

    

  • Explanation

    Other than Siblings, Parents, Grandparents (Maternal+Paternal → 4)

    Other than them, all will be considered as Complimentary Filiation

    All Green Colours are Complimentary Filiation where as Yellow Bonds are Filial Bonds

  • Example

    Tallensi of Ghana

    Political Connection → by means of Filiation

    Emotional & Personal Connection → by means of Complementary Filiation

  • Descent Theorist of Africa

    All the Anthropologist who studied Complimentary Filiation Studies led by Mayor Fortes are called as Descent Theorists of Africa

  Patri Filiation and Matri Filiation

  • Note

    1. In Matrilineal - Fathers Line is Ignored
    2. In Patrilineal - Mothers Line is Ignored

  • Dictation

    Patri Filiation can be considered as an extension of patrilineal society only in the context of transfer of responsibilities, authorities, status etc

    as an Extension of Matrilineal Society, but there is a difference at the level of comparison of Patri Filiation and Matri Filiation

    The Filial Bond is Same within both the Lines and is of Equal Importance

• Kinship Terminologies as a Basis of Classification

  • This can be a 20 Marker Question

  • Introduction

    L H Morgan was one of the first Anthropologist to recognise various kinship terms as basis of classification.

    It means that you can give various societies as being similar or different as the terms used for Terms of Terminology

  • Schema

    

  ---

  • Morgans Method of Kinship Terminology Classification

    • Introduction

      Classification based on Kinship Terminology gives an Idea about Similarities and Differences about Managing Kinship Ties and those societies and these societies following same pattern of terminology can be put together.

      L H Morgan said that there are two different ways to establish this terminology

    • Classificatory System

      1. One Term for Multiple Relations
      2. One Term for More than One Type of Kin
      3. Either for Same Sex, Same Age Group, Same Generation

    • Descriptive System

      Every Kins Relationship is Designated by a Different Term

      Like Father Brother will be having different term

      Like Mothers Sister will will be having different term

      Like Mother Brother will be having different term

  • Morgans view of Evolution on Kinship Terminologies

  • Criticism of Morgans View

  • WHR Rivers View

    Rivers considered Kinship Terms arising from some marriage principles, some forms of marriage practises.

    even if these principles and practises are vanished kinship terms stayed

    Hence these terms can be now used to study about those marriage principles and practises.

• G P Murdock Classification of Kinship

  • Introduction

    He used three types of Criteria to classify major systems of Kinship Terminologies.

    He gave the most elaborative scheme of Kinship Terminologies

  • Concept of Classification

    He gave 3 Types of Determinants, based on which there are 5 or 6 major types of Kinship Terminology Systems

    Some Consider Omaha & Crow as separate → 6 Types

    Some Consider Omaha Crow as same → 5 Types

  ---

  • Three Types of Determinants are

    • Mind Map

      

    • 1. Mode of Use
      2. Term of Address - Directly Addressing the Person → You, I, Us
      3. Term of Reference → Third Party → He, She, They & Them

    • 2. Linguistic Structure

      3. Elementary Structure

         Which cannot be broken down Further

         Example

         1. Father
         2. Daughter

      4. Descriptive / Derivative Structure

         Which Needs to be Derived or Further Described

         Example

         1. Grandfather - Paternal / Maternal
         2. Step Daughter

    • 3. Range of Applications

      4. Denotative Term

         Can be used for Relatives of Same Category

         Examples

         Brother

         Sister

      5. Classificatory Term

         Can be used for Relatives of Two or More Categories

         Examples

         Uncle

         Grandfather

  • Six Major Systems (Global Classification)

    It can be

    • Omaha and Crow

      Omaha and Crow Terminologies are almost mirror images of each other found in different parts of the world.

      The only difference is that Omaha terminology is mainly used in patrilineal descent

      Crow Terminology is mainly associated with Groups of Patrilineal Descent

      Thats why sometimes they are mentioned together as Omaha Crow Terminologies
    • 5. Omaha System

      

      1. Name Based on Omahas of North America
      2. Examples

         1. Omahas of North America

         2. Sumi Nagas of Nagaland

            They use the Term INGU for both Mothers Brother and Mothers Brother Son

    • 6. Crow System

      

      1. Name Based on Crow & Cree Indians near Rocky Mountains and Prairies
      2. Blue One is Description of Crow System
      3. In Omaha Crow Terminology usually a Same term is used to Address all the male members on father side or all the female members towards mothers side
      4. For Examples
         1. Father
         2. Fathers Brother
         3. Fathers Brothers Son
         4. Fathers Sister Son
         5. All these Male Members will be addressed with the same term
      5. Examples
         1. Ab Origins of Australia
         2. Amazonian Tribes

    ---

    • 1. Hawaiian System

      Fathers Brother = Mothers Brother

      

      Examples :

      1. Hawaiian Polynesians
      2. North India
         1. Bhai / Bhaiyya - Brother for Real or Cousin or Sibling Tribe
         2. Didi - Sister
      3. Zeme Tribe of Assam and Manipur
         1. Asi - All Brothers, Sisters & Cousins of Ego will be called Asi
         2. Now it is considered as Hawaiian Type as earlier there was different term for these which is now merged into one

    • 2. Eskimo System

      3. Involves use of both Classificatory and Descriptive Terms

      4. It is found in less numbers in the world

         

      5. Example

         1. Inuits
         2. Eskimos of Sub Arctic Region
    • 3. Iroquois System

      Can be considered as an extension of Omaha Crow Terminology with certain additions and modifications

      

      Examples

      1. Ao Nagas of Nagaland
         1. All the Boys - Oti
         2. All the Girls - Oya
      2. Various Chinese Tribes or Rural Chines Populations use this system
    • 4. Sudanese System

      It is the most descriptive system, there are different terms for different relations and positions

      Examples

      1. Trobriand Islanders
      2. Norther Plains in India for Parental Generations

  • Conclusion & Criticism

    G P Murdock gave one of the most elaborative classification for Kinship Terms which is used in different disciplines

    Various Anthropologists criticised Murdock for focusing mainly on simple small scale societies but even after criticism Murdock’s classification is one of the most elaborative system for kinship terminology

• Descent and Alliance Theory

  • Descent Theorist

    • Theorists are
      1. Proponents of Descent
         1. Led By
            1. R Brown - Andaman Islanders
            2. Jack Goody
            3. Meyer Fortes - Tallensi of Ghana
         2. Further Supported by
            1. WHR Rivers - Todas
      2. Proponents of Alliance
         1. Levi Strauss
    • Concept

      1. Descent + Transfer of Everything + Elements of Consanguinity

      2. Lineage is like a Corporate House where people hold resources and collectively maintain the resources

      3. As a Member of Lineage, they are followers of Incest Taboo

      4. Here Marriage is an outside Phenomenon

         As such it is not required for Kinship

         It came out of as a result for Incest being Taboo

      5. They called Marriage to be Ephemeral, meaning it was for short lived period of time, and it was secondary

      6. But Alliance theorist emerged in response to descent theorist

  • Alliance Theorist

    • Theorists are

      1. Levi Strauss

         Book: “Elementary Structure of Kinship”

      2. Dumont

      3. Needham

      4. Leach

    • Concept

      1. It emerged as a response to Descent Theorist

      2. They said that proposition of descent theorist is confined to african societies

      3. They Proposed that Australoasians, South East Asia, Latin Americans is not at all Ephemeral and stays for Longer Periods of Life Cycle

      4. We Can Give Example of Indian Society for Non Ephemeral Permanent Marriages of Alliance Theory

      5. These Theorists Gave Examples of Kachin Province of Burma

         1. Polygamous Marriages are Prevalent
         2. Brides (Dulhan) Family is of Higher Status than the Grooms (Dulha)Family
         3. In Kachins of Burma, Marriage can be in one form only
         4. Its unidirectional but permanent

      6. This Marriage Arrangement in Kachins will lead to a formation of Lineage

      7. Alliance Theorist Argue that Marriage is a Structural Principle

      8. Hence, Based on Marriage a Lineage will be formed, thus alliance theorists proved that marriage is a structural reality

         They Negated the Descent theorists that Lineage was Primary and Not Marriage

    • Strauss Alliance Theory

      1. He propounded this theory in his book “elementary Structure of Kinship”
      2. Levi Strauss termed incest taboo as cornerstone of society
      3. Is based on Incest Taboo such that if society is a fact then Incest Taboo is a pre social fact
      4. When a Person understood that he cannot marry his sisters
      5. Sister exchange took place, by means of marriage which in turn led to evolving of society
      6. Sister exchange is a kind of positive rule of marriage

  • Conclusion

    There is a Difference in the Approach of Descent and Alliance Theorists in a way that

    Descent Theorists Accepted Primary → Descent and Lineage as Primary Secondary → Marriage as Secondary or Ephemeral

    Alliance Theorist Accepted Primary → Marriage as Central Point revolving around incest taboo which can be supported by Lineage Systems

    Hence, Alliance Theorists Did Not reject lineage as factor of Kinship or Soci

• Two Models of Structure of Kinship based on Alliance Theory

  • Closed System (Elementary)

    • Introduction

      

      Levis Strauss Argued that Cross Cousin Marriages which are prevalent in Maximum Parts of the World are to create a Balance between Daughter Providers and Receivers

      Cross Cousin Marriage was considered as one of the most elementary form of closed system marriages

    • This Closed System Marriage was divided into two types

      • Symmetric (Restricted)

        Kind of Bi-Lateral Cross Cousin Marriages

        

      • Asymmetric (Generalised)

        

        Examples : Kachins of Burma have 5 different members of the groups

  • Open System (Complex)

    Strauss used the term Alliance with Other Groups, Alliance based on Marriage will also lead to social cohesion

    This cohesion is used to minimise animosity & Increase Solidarity

• Kinship System in India by Dr Irawati Karve

  She talked about the Kinship System in India in her Book: Kinship Organisation in India

  • She divided India into 4 Different Cultural Zones based on Kinship Ties

    1. Northern Zones

    2. Central Zones

       Central India Maximum Parts + Some Parts of Western India + Some Parts of Eastern India

    3. Southern Zone

    4. Eastern Zone ( Actual North East India)

       Some Parts of Eastern India + North Eastern India Maximum Parts

  • This Division was based on Three Concepts / Basis

    1. Linguistic Regions

       There can be Linguistic Divisions and they can deviate

       She gave Example of Maharashtra → Marathi or Gujarati are Sanskritic Language but in Maharashtra Kinship Ties are More Matching with Southern India

    2. Caste

       She Said → Caste is Hereditary, Its Endogamous, Caste is Restricted to a Linguistic Region

       She was of the Opinion that a Particular Caste is Found in a Particular Language Belt

       There are Lot of Deviations Seen from this Aspect

    3. Family Organisation

       Joint Family is one of the Significant Institution to Understand Cultural Phenomenon of India

       Example: Agrarian Background of India Led to Creation of Join Family Structure in India

       JF in India is not Just a Kinship Ties, but is a Kind of Social and Economic Security

  Kinship Systems in Various Parts of India

  • Kinship Systems in North India

    1. Sacred Value of Blood and Marital Ties

    2. Rule of Four Gotras is employed in rules of Marriage

       Gotras of Father Mother, Grandmother (Paternal and Maternal) is used

    3. Example : Brahmins, Kshatriyas + Other Upper Caste

    4. Example of Prominent Languages: Hindi, Punjabi, Sindhi, Bihari, Bengali, Nepali, Small Pockets of Assamese

    5. Well Defined Clan Exogamy. Village Exogamy is also practised in many parts of Northern India

    6. Strict Focus on Caste Endogamy

    7. Strong Taboo related to Marital Ties in Primary Relations

  • Kinship System in Central India

    1. Examples of Place: Raj, Some Parts of Guj, MP, CG, MP, Orissa, Some Parts of Maharashtra
    2. Examples of Languages: Gujarati, Marathi, Rajasthani, Bengali, Oriya etc are some prominent languages of this region
    3. Maximum of These Languages are Sanskritic in Origin. But there are some pockets of Dravidian Languages as well.
    4. With this Spoken Language, there are many tribal languages and Dialects Prevalent
    5. Here, Cross Cousin Marriages are Allowed
    6. Clan Exogamy is Practised in Many Caste
    7. Village Exogamy is Also practised here in some parts like North India

  • Kinship System in South India

    1. Examples of Place: Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh (including Telangana), Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Orissa and Jharkhand

    2. It is the most “complicated pattern of kinship in India”

    3. Patrilineal, Matrilineal, Patrilocal, Matrilocal

    4. Cross Cousin Marriage is almost a NORM

       1. Father Sister Daughter
       2. Mother's Brother Daughter

    5. When there is a Age Gap between Brother and Sister

       Elder Sister Daughter can be considered for marriage for Brother

    6. This Preferential Marriages are to maintain unity & Solidarity of the Clan

    7. Upholding the Principle of Return or Exchange of Daughters

    8. To Maintain and Keep the Property Holdings in the Family Itself

    9. Here Village Exogamy is Not a Norm in South

  • Kinship System in Eastern India

    1. Mainly Talks about North Eastern part of the country

    2. Examples of Languages: Korku, Saka, Khema, Saaki, Assamese, Annamese

       DON’T ADD : Nagas and Mezos (It was not studied by Irawati Karve)

    3. Examples of Local Dialects: Mundari, Monkhmer (Khasi Hills Region), Chain → Austro Asiatic Group of Languages

    4. Some Parts of Eastern India like Ho, Santhals

       They have Preferential Marriages under Cross Cousin Marriages

    5. They have Totemistic Religions and Clans in all of North Eastern India

    6. They Have common Graveyards

    7. They have common properties but husband and wife can stay in Separately in a nearby house

    8. They have balanced system of joint family characterized by Matrilineality. Property goes to the Youngest Daughter

  • Themes for Comparison - Make a Table

    Village, Clan, Preferential Marriages, System of Marriages, Languages etc

Paper 1 - Unit 5.0 - Religion

• Introduction

  Anthropologist Since Beginning of Discipline have been talking about Religion

  Some Theories consider religion as either

  1. Magic
  2. Agent to fill gap between Science and Humans
  3. Some consider it a form of life

  For Example, Maurice Goudier (Marxist Structuralist), propounded that religion was a predominant force in version of ancient societies which acted as a mode of production

• Maurice Goudier view of Religion

  Marxist Structuralist Maurice Godier, Believed that societies where religion was predominant was regarded as a mode of production. It was a Important Structural Element of the Society. He gave the classical example of

  Inca Civilisation

  Ancient Peru

  Traditional Hindu Society (When Outside Elements have not infiltrated the society)

• Religion as Mode of Social Control Mechanism

  Whether its a Older or Present Society, Whether Simple Small Scale Whether Complex Industrial Every Society will have Religion with some or the other affect on the people of that society

• Subject Matter of Religion in Anthropology

  Study of Theology, Philosophy, Mythology also leads to Study of Religion

  But Anthropological View of Religion studies, that why Religion is Important to Society ? why is it more important to some and less to others How it shapes society How it is shaped by Society How it is regulating action of people

  Hence Anthropology Studies Religion in Context of Society

  ---

  Subject Matter of Religion in Anthropology, is quite different from the Subject Matter of Religion in Theology, Philosophy of Mythology.

  In Anthropology, we are not trying to explain what religion is or what are its characteristics, but the focus agenda is why is religion important in some societies and less in others How is it impacting day to day life of people How it acts as an agent of Social Control

• E B Tylor view of Religion

  1. He was supporter of Naturism form of Religion
  2. Naturism is when they consider Elements of Nature as Elements of Religion like Rain, Sun, Forest, Ocean etc
  3. Which Later Transformed into Animatism or Animism
  4. Animatism comes from the world Anima meaning Soul. Thus, Animatism means Soul Worshipping
  5. Deducing from these Arguments, Tylor said that Religion is a belief in Spiritual things, it's a belief in Non Living Things present in our Ancestors

• Durkheim's View of Religion

  1. Durkheim said that Religion is a Unified Whole of Beliefs & Practises
  2. Thus Collective Beliefs and Practises can be termed as a Religion
  3. Actual Definition by Durkheim: Durkheim Considered Religion as a Unified System of Belief and Practises relative to sacred things that is to allow or forbid certain acts by followers And these practices adhere the members together

• Marx’s View of Religion

  Religion is Opium TO Masses

• Clifford Geertz View of Religion

  • Definition Framework - MUG THIS UP / ROTE LEARN THIS

    

  • Definition

    He Dissected the Term Religion under 5 interlinked components

    1. R is a system of symbols
    2. R is established as a long lasting mode or motivation to humans
    3. R formulating a general order of existences
    4. R frames religious conception like true facts
    5. Moods and Motivation look realistics

• Animism and Animatism

  Animism and Animatism is derived from the common term Anima

  • Animism

    Animism is one of the most primitive form of religion where natural objects are considered to be inhabited by spirits like creatures objects, places and perhaps even words

    Animism is one of the most primitive form of religion which is considering natural objects being inhabited by spirits like creatures, objects, places, trees and even the words

    Also the Spirits can interact with people as per their wish and will

    Polytheism form of religion was contemporary to animism beliefs

    E B Tylor's and Herbert Spencer were supporters of Animism

  • Animatism

    It is also a primitive form of religion considering the power of spirits and souls scattered in both living and nonliving things i.e the power of spirit is impersonal and everywhere

    R R Marett (British Anthropologist) proposed the Idea of Animatism and some anthropologist were of the opinion that animatism emerged even before animism

• Naturism

  Concept Proposed by the Sociologist Max Muller, with the basic idea that man has always worshipped forces of nature, which could have been started as early as the emergence of modern man

  Naturism doesn't talk about Spirits

  For Example

  Worshipping of Sun, Winds, Rain. Considering them being governed by certain Super Natural Powers present in the Nature

• Schools of Thoughts on Emergence of Religion

  • Framework Mind Map

    

  • Evolutionary Perspective

    • James Frazer

      Religious beliefs in words of James Frazer, moved from Magic to Religion to Science

    • Tylor and Marret

      Tylor was of the view that first what started was Animism

    • Supernatural Powers are called

      • Mana - Pacific
      • Mulungu - Africa
      • Orena - North America

    • Criticism by Kroeber

  • Psychological Perspective

    Also called Emotive Theorists

    • RR Marett View on Emergence of Religion

      Religion started religion to answer the things which is unanswered

      What people thought in a collective behavior became religion

      Emotive Factor Responsible for Emergence of Religion by Various Scholars

      1. Unspecified Emotions
      2. Fear
      3. Anxiety & Uncertainty

      These things were later explained by Malinowski

    • Sigmund Freud View on Emergence of Religion

      Oedipus Complex - Greek Prince Killed his Father to Marry here

      Religion can be an outcome of conflicts of ideas of subconscious

      Subconscious - Conflict - Emergence of Religion

    • Neo Freudian - Kardiner

      Religious Institutions of Tribals led to Projection of Basic Personality

  • Functional Perspective

    • Introduction

      Like other Social System Religion also has function to society. Religion emerged in society

      1. to explain certain situations
      2. especially to explain their suffering
      3. for maintenance of social order
      4. as a tool for cohesion

    • Protestant Ethics and Spirit of Capitalism ( Max Weber)

      Religion in the view of functionalists, is an explanation to human sufferings which acts as a source of social cohesion, social welfare, social control and also impacts the economic life.

      also impacts the economic life → Max Weber in his theory of Protestant Ethics and Spirit of Capitalism, supported this Idea that the seeds of civilisation were present in different parts of the world from china to India to Egypt to Europe and America, but capitalism flourished only in europe because of the religious belief of protestantism, which is asking protestants to work more and more to produce more

      Examples Are :

      1. Malinowski - Trobriand Islanders

         Burning of the Dead by means of religious beliefs for the soul to come out of Body

      2. R Brown - Andaman Islander

         They consider Forest has Soul. Hecne, they protect the forest, which in turn gives them resources

      3. Evans Pritchard - Nuer Tribes of Africa

  • Marxists Perspective

    1. Proposed by Karl Marx & Friedrich Engels (French)
    2. Religion in the Words of Marx is an Expression of Real Distress and a protection against that distress
    3. Religion is a Sign of Oppressed Creature
    4. Religion is the Heart of Heartless
    5. Religion is the Spirit of Spiritless
    6. Which is Opium to the Masses

  • Symbolic Perspective

    1. Proposed by Clifford Geertz
    2. He gave a “Three Point Critical Threshold Theory”
       1. Threshold of Reason
       2. Threshold of Suffering
       3. Threshold of Evil
    3. Geertz was of the opinion that religion is a connection of symbols, events, objects and acts etc

• Theory of Religion by Durkheim

  • Introduction

    1. Syllabus : Totemism : The Elementary Form of Religious Life
    2. He Studied the Arunta Tribes of Australia
    3. Totemism was given by Durkheim as the most basic form of Religion.
    4. He Rejected Animism first and then later rejected Naturism (accepted some elements, rejected some elements)
    5. for Durkheim, Religion is a Collective whole of Beliefs and Practises
    6. Maintained that Notion of God is Not Necessary for a Religion
    7. Totem as a Symbol
    8. Example of Central Indian Tribes
       1. Bakra Vansh
       2. Khonds
    9. Elementary Form of Society is not complex, it is as simple as the society

  • Sacred Mundane Profane

    Recognition to a particular value divides the society into two parts

    1. Sacred
    2. Profane

    Stenner gave the concept of Mundane

    M K Bose & Ghurre criticised the Structure of Totem, for some it's different and some different

• Myths

  • Introduction

    1. Perception and Belief - Maximum Times it is Religious Beliefs

    2. It is some kind of narrative for which we don’t know the origin generally

    3. Sometimes it is based on Stories

    4. Its Literal Meaning is Fiction

    5. It’s a Historical Event may be which is connected to a

       1. SuperNatural Thing
       2. Religious Leader
       3. Event - Ex: Disaster

    6. It can be connected with God Also

    7. Myths are Perceptions and Beliefs

    8. Myths are Relevant as per the Interest of people, more of a Pragmatic Interest

    9. Mythology Generates from Myth

       It is followed but NOT Questioned

    10. Myths are NOT False Perceptions

        Myths are MERELY Perceptions

  • Definition by Malinowski

    Myths are Relevant as per Interest of People

  • Definition of C L Strauss

    1. He was a Structuralist
    2. Myth is a Cultural Artefact meaning it is an outcome of some particular culture
    3. In his Study : Structural Analysis of Men
    4. It is a Kind of Structural Reality, which is imposed on people and this imposition has some context
    5. If this context is not present people will not accept it
    6. Do Not Read A Myth Superficially, Try to Find out the Deeper Understanding of the Myth

  • Definition by Franz Boas

  • Functions of a Myth in a Society

    1. It Explain some Elements of the society

       which in practicality is not easily explainable

    2. Myths Explains - Rituals and Religious Practises

    3. It can explain certain facts at Some point of time

       Example A Society not Following Exogamy. It is following Endogamy.

       There may be no scientific backing to it but there may be a Myth that if they follow exogamy there purity will be lost

    4. Certain Elements of Folklore can be explained by means of Myth

       Example why Cloth and Food is the way it is

    5. Folklore can give rise to New Myths

       Example Usage of Extract from Seed of Some Plant in a Dye

       Example is when Malinowski was studying Trobriand Islanders, Like this Plant is Giving Healthy Food for All Most throughout the Year

       If this plant is given to the cattle, it was a belief that cattle will give good quality milk

• Rituals

  • Introduction

    1. Ceremonies / Religious Practises / Acts of Worshipping → Followed by People on the Direction of Priesthood
    2. To Follow their Traditional Practises
    3. Example : Weapon Worshipping

  • Edmund Leach’s Definition of Rituals

    Rituals are culturally defined behaviour which acts a medium to connect people which in turn acts as a medium of social communication

  • Gilbert Levis’s Definition of Rituals

    It is a Standardised Behaviour with Meanings and defined Means & Ends

    It can be Rational or Non Rational

  ---

  • Features & Functions of Rituals

    1. It is not Individual it is having a public content

    2. It is sometimes symbolic in nature

       Example: Lossar Festival of Tibetan New Year, but it is not merely a Symbol

    3. Rituals are followed from time to time at Specific Times of Life Cycle

       Example : Upanayan Sanskar (Twice Born Caste)

       Example : Visiting Sabrimala, Tirupati & Mecca

    4. Sometimes Rituals are Parallel to Certain Natural Events Also

       Example: Rituals Related to Solar & Lunar Eclipse

       Example: Rituals in western ghats for onset of Monsoon

  • Functionality of Rituals - Durkheim

    1. When a totem is considered to be sacred, it is worshipped and not eaten
    2. It forms a Ritual which promotes Social Consciousness, In Group Feelings and Solidarity in the Society

  • Functionality of Rituals - Radcliffe Brown

    1. They Maintain Social Structure as they Re Enforce Sentiments of People

    2. Even Taboos in societies, The Prohibition of Taboo and Acceptance of this Prohibition is

    3. Brow was of the Opinion that Taboos which are Prohibitory in Nature can also have rituals associated with them

       Like Some Ritual denouncing consumption of Certain food products

       He Gave the Example of Andaman Islanders extended the ritual value to some of the food items and the members are not allowed to harm or consume those

       In this way a rare species is getting protected and such precious food items are safeguarded for emergency use

  • Types of Rituals

    • Positive & Negative Rituals
      1. Positive Ritual
         1. Related to Re Inventing Something
         2. Example: Dussehra
      2. Negative Rituals
         1. Prohibition Taboo
    • Imitative Rituals
      1. Just to show loyalty to Group
      2. You Imitate the Ritual
    • Sacrificial Rituals

      1. New Year Celebration is 1 January

         New Year Celebration can be 21 March, 22 June, 21 September

      2. When you begin an attack

      3. When done with harvesting season

      4. During Marriage

      5. Sacrifice of Cattle is Seen

  ---

  • Rites De Passage / Rites of Passage

    • Introduction

      Arnold Van Gannepp - Liminality - Victor Turner - Symbolic & Interpretative

      When we shift from one stage to another stage, there are certain ceremonies and rituals to be followed

      If a person is moving from Pre to Liminal to Post Liminal

      He has to change his Life Style

    • Examples are

      1. Mundan
      2. Name Giving / Name Rites on Rituals
      3. Upanayan Sanskar
      4. Kangas in NDembu
      5. Marriage and Funeral Rites - Almost Universal
  • Rites of Intensification
    1. Also called Life Crisis Rights
    2. Crisis can be on
       1. Life - Hindu Cremation Ceremony
       2. Disaster
       3. Food Unavailability

  ---

• Relation Between Myth and Rituals

  • Rituals Emerged from Myths Most Accepted Proposition

    1. Multiple Religious Practises in all the Religion
    2. Example : Easter Celebrations, Dussehra, Some Jews Festival
    3. Myths do not have a stand individually unless they are supported by Rituals
    4. View of E B Tylor on their inter connectivity
       1. E B Tylor Said that Myths are connected to Rituals in a way like Science & Technology
       2. Like Without Backup of Science, Technology cannot be developed
       3. Technology expresses science behind it
       4. Myth is a Kind of Proto Science
       5. Ritual is the Technological Based on Science
       6. Like Technology is Application of Science, in the same way Ritual is Application of Myth

  • Myths Emerged from Rituals

    1. According to James Frazer and Robertson gave the Principal of Primacy of Rituals
    2. It says that Rituals are Basis and Primary. Myths emerge time to time from these Rituals
    3. As Religious Evolution takes place, the Rituals, Give Rise to Notion which in turn give rise to myth
    4. Primacy of Rituals as per Robertson and Frazer is talking about Sequential Steps of Religious Evolution from one form to another to another and during this course various notions are developed which emerged in the form of myth

  • Rituals and Myths are Interlinked

    Malinowski said it is always not necessary that myths will give rise to rituals or vice versa

    It Really depends on the situation, Situation that there are many cultural practises or rituals that are related to various myths

    Within One Practise or Ritual, there can be a Myth behind it and this ritual in turn may give rise to a new myth

• Fetishism

  1. It emerged from the term Feticos, meaning outcomes of a skill (Skilfully Made Object)

  2. It is a kind of Earliest Form of Religion

  3. August Comte in his book Evolution of Religion says that Fetishism was religion even before Polytheism

  4. Hence, the Sequence is Fetishism → Polytheism → Monotheism

  5. This Feticos can be

     1. Man Made : Like a Sword
     2. Natural : Plant / Human / Animal
     3. Human Body : Cloth, Nail, Hair, Bone etc
     4. Most Common Feticos Object from Human Body is : Blood

  6. Voodoos of Carribean Islands → They had a Belief that when there was a cut or injury and blood loss occurred, people would die → They thought that Blood was a Supernatural Power

     Later Voodoos Considered → Nail , Claws & Fur as Fetish Object

  7. Bondo Tribe of Odisha considers Sword as Fetish Object

  8. Indian Form of Fetishism is may be worshipping or insulting the Fetish Object

Magic Religion and Science

• Introduction

  1. There is a Constant Flux between Religion, Magic and Science
  2. in Pre Renaissance Period → Magic and Religion was Co Existent with Science.
  3. in Renaissance / Enlightenment period, with rationalisation of thought, people questioned everything, they didn’t accept things which could not be proved. This led to Secularisation of thought, first in Europe and then in other parts of the world
  4. Renaissance led to clear cut division of function between State and Religion, thus religion should be restricted to private sphere as it is a individual thing
  5. Hence, we can conclude that before renaissance magic religion and science existed equally, where as post renaissance the sphere of magic, religion and science were clearly

• Views of Various Thinkers

  • Acc to Albert Einstein

    Science without Religion is Lame Religion without Science is Blind

  • Acc to James Frazer

    There is a Liner Evolutionary Framework, in between Magic to Religion to Science

  • Acc to E B Tylor

    Religion is a Belief in Spiritual Realm of Real World. Since Beginning people use religion to answer the unanswered

    In Primitive Societies, People follow Animism. Thus the Scope of Science is Very Less

    But in Advanced & Civilised Societies, where monotheism emerged. Here Religion and Science can co exist together

  • Acc to Durkheim

    1. Durkheim was of the opinion that

       Magic did not give birth to religion

       Rather, Religion gave birth to Magic and Later Science

    2. He further extended by saying that Magic and Religion oppose Each Other.

    3. Magic Can Have but Maximum Times Cannot Have a Social Character

       It is more of a Individual Expression

    4. But Religion is essentially social which is functional to society

       which can be accepted to rejected by society at large

    5. Religion and Science will stay together because

       Religion is Raw Science

       Science is Mature Religion

       Durkheim was of this Opinion that Religion is a form of Raw Science and Scientific thought develop with a mature religion

  • Acc to Malinowski

    1. in His Essay : “Magic, Science & Religion”

    2. He opined that no matter what form of society exists, there is always a scientific element present in the society.

       These Scientific Elements can emerge in the form of magic and in the form of religion

    3. He gave Example of Trobriand Islanders

       There Art & Craft, Instruments, Agricultural Practises etc cannot exists and function until they have better understanding of natural phenomenon

    4. He Said Magic in itself is science and they both have a definite aim

       Both are based on Human Instincts and Needs

    5. When Crops Failed, Cattle Died and Health Challenged occurred, people when couldn’t explain this moved to define these through magic, which later became Religion.

       Both the Magic and Religion were based on some or the other Scientific Principles

       For Example : Growing of a Specific Crop in a Specific period of time is Scientific

    6. Magic was considered as an Superstitious activity or Belief by Malinowski to control the Nature

       When Natural or Human Efforts were In Sufficient

  • Acc to Raymond Firth

    R Firth said that Magic has Three different Elements in it,

    1. Practitioner
    2. Aim : Practical Aim
    3. Technique : Magical Formula

• Similarities Between Magic & Sciences

  

Magico Religious Functionaries & Practitioners

• Introduction

  Magico Religious Functionaries in One or Another Form are found in maximum Societies and are required based on the conditions and demands sometimes in health challenges or disaster like situations or crop failure or to overpower the spirits and even to take control over someones body

  These Practitioners are having a Special Status in the Society and they get some sort of reward in cash or kind against there services

• 1. Shamans and Medicine Man

  2. Maximum times Shaman is male who is proficient to perform certain magical rights.

  3. The Concept of Shaman & Shamanism emerged from Ancient Siberia

  4. They Know the Sacred Songs, Rituals and Formulae and use them to serve the Society

  5. like curing the disease, controlling supernatural powers, or regulating the Anti Group Behaviour of Individuals

  6. They have higher status in Society

  7. Some Anthropologists call Shamans as Witch Doctors

  8. Amazon Rain Forest, there are certain Ab Origins referred as Shuar or Jivaro Indians in Amazon Rainforest

     This Group was studied by American Anthropologist Harner. Here he said that Shaman is not necessarily a male, she can be a female too.

     They enter into a altered state of consciousness, here they have some spirits under their control

  9. It is considered that Shamans, They are a connection between Natural and Super Natural

  10. A Shaman takes Training from Pre Shaman

  11. Sometimes they use Psychotropic Substances to get into trance state

  12. They have painful and lengthy training may be even a decade

  13. They can use Hypnotism, Drumming, Dancing, Singing etc

  14. While this training happens they stay away from all sorts of distractions of common life

  15. Example of Work : Shoot Arrows & Spirits

  16. Example : Hoansi or Ju Bushmans of Kalahari

• 2. Priests / Priestess

  3. Generally Found in Societies which are Resource Rich

  4. Meaning They can Support a Full Time Occupational Specialist

  5. These are Socially Initiated Position which are placed or inducted through certain ceremonies

  6. They are placed very high in the Religious Organisation

  7. Their Functions are

     1. Communication Medium between
        1. People and God
        2. People and Spirits
        3. God and Spirits
     2. To help common people to handle the Supernatural things
        1. Examples Buddhist Lamas
        2. Imams
        3. Pujari's
        4. Rabbis
        5. Monks
        6. Catholic Priests

  8. They have no Supernatural Powers and Spirits

     They have some rituals and chantings which are effective against supernatural powers and rituals in the form of prayers which can regulate or control the supernatural powers and the spirits

  9. Training Includes

     1. Fasting for Long Duration
     2. Fasting for Multiple Days
     3. Code of Conduct
     4. They Train for Long and have Rigorous

  10. After Training

      1. They Dress Differently
      2. They have Different Hairstyle
      3. So that they can be recognised easily between the Masses
      4. They act as Representatives of Community in front of
         1. God
         2. Spirits

  11. What do they Actually Do

      1. Various Rituals for Rites of Passage

         Example : Birth and Death Related Rituals etc

      2. For Climatic and Epidemic

      3. Better Agriculture Output

  12. Anthropologist have observed that societies with full time religious specialists like priests are likely to be dependent on food production rather than food collection

  13. They are likely to have economic exchange involving use of money, class stratification etc

  14. One or the Other Type of Priests are Associated with One or the Other type of Society in primitive or Modern Times

• 3. Sorcerers

  • Introduction

    A Sorcerer is a Magician and Evil Figure (can be termed as black magician in certain practises)

    involved in illegal, illegitimate, anto social deeds

    Usually the sorcerer learns the Art and uses different techniques ans rituals for causing an effect maximally and negative impact on others

    Sorcerers do the Contagious magic through hair, nails, clothes, body fluids of the victim

  • Case Study

    In KIPSINGI of Kenya there are various sorcerers in a Hierarchy.

    The most powerful one is ORGOIYAT who could perform sorcery against the whole tribe due to more powers in comparison to other sorcerers. These Less Powerful Sorcerers are termed as BONINDETS

    James Frazer Studied magic and Sorcery, based on certain logical principles

    • Imitative Principles - Like Produces Like

      i.e if an object resembles a person and the sorcerer mutilates the object, then the same thing will happen to the Person like the Famous Voodoo Doll

      Example: In Dobus of Melanesia, Sorcerer’s Caste the Spells by imitating the symptoms of a disease

    • Contagious Principles - Power comes from Contact

      i.e once coming in contact can be used in Rites and Spell, to make the things happen to that person like the use of hair clippings, body secretions, nails, jewellery even the Umbilical Cord

      Societies in which Sorcerers Rest on Contagious Principles, people must dispose off their objects, they have been in contact with ; away from the reach of enemies or Sorcerers

• 4. Witches and Witchcraft

  Evans Pritchard differentiated between Witches and Sorcerer's in Africa. As Sorcerers rely on external powers where as witches have internal and inherited powers .

  Both are common being anti social in character.

  Witches are believed to Practise Cannibalism (they mainly eat children) or Incest, to increase their power

  They Show deep sense of Greed Jealousy and Hatred.

  A Witch is NOT always a women.

  Examples: In Nupe Ethnic Group of Nigeria, Witch is always a Women

  Examples: Whereas in the Near By Gwari Ethnic Group, A Witch can be a Man or Woman

  Both Witches and Sorcerers use power to harm others, even death.

  Witchcraft is commonly found in Maximum Societies and is not Restricted to Tribal Societies

  Study → Witchcraft : A Study in Indian Occultism by R N Saletore

  This Book Highlighted about prevalence of witchcraft in different parts of India. Pre dominantly in central and east Indian Tribes.

  Example: Like in Oraons of East Central India, a grave ill individual suffering from Leprosy, Seizures is beaten with Sticks and Stone, sometimes till death to get rid of witchcraft

  Even today witchcraft can be witnessed in many parts of India

  Anthropologists consider witchcraft as the use of Psychic Power to cause harm to other

  Sorcerer's Manipulate the Object or use the Object to cause the Harms, but witches directly harm the individuals

  A Broader notion related to witchcraft is that its an evil force bringing misfortune to community like in Ibibio of Nigeria which are known to remove the soul of an individual and place it in an animal

  Making the Person Sick and Ultimately Leading to Death

  Witchcraft is like an Explanation of Events, based on the belief that certain individuals posses

  Certain Individuals Posses innate Psychic power of causing harm or sickness or death

  Even today, in maximum sub saharan African countries spread of HIV Aids is considered to be an outcome of Witchcraft

  Intense or Raw form of Witchcraft can be found in many societies even today

Paper 1 - Unit 3.0 - Economic Organisation

• Introduction

  Define Economic Anthropology by Ralph Paddington

• Two Types of Schools Emerged

  Two Prominent Arguments Emerged in Economic Anthropology, in the form of substantivist and formalists

  • Substantivist’s

    There is Little to be learned from Study of Market Economy in Anthropology because market economy on a prominent principle targeting profit or benefit

    profit or benefit → Not Appropriately Extendable in Studying People, who do not exchange good or services for profits or gains

    It Supporters are Kall Polany, Malinowski, Sahlins

  • Formalists

    They Claimed that Economic Theory has actually to do with, the ways people get personal satisfaction in saving and storing things and distributing those scarce resources against some fixed arrangement (like money)

    It Supporters are Herkovitz, R Firth, Birlings

• The Formalists and Substantivist's Debate - Important Dictated

  • Introduction

    Susbtantivism and Formalism constituted important streams of thought that have contributed to the growth of economic anthropology

    For Sometime Anthropologists have borrowed theory and concepts from the discipline of Economics in an attempt to understand certain economic relationships between the people

    Since the Discipline of Economics is concentrated around allocation of scarce goods and services in Industrial Society, it has become a matter of controversy and discussion as to what modifications must be made, so that economic theory becomes applicable to non industrial societies (simple small scale societies)

    Some Anthropologists Adhere to the Point of View, that there is little to be learned from study of market economy where principle motivation is profit, in studying people who do not exchange good and service for gaining. This Stance is Susbtantivism.

    There are other scholars who adhere to school of thought termed as formalism and claim that economic theory has really to do with the ways people get the personal satisfaction in saving the things and in distributing scarce resources. This is Formalists Approach.

  • Summarised Difference Between them

    Google online

  • Substantivist Approach

    It was first proposed by Karl Polanyi in his work the Great Transformation. He Argued that there can be two different meanings of Economics

    A Formal Meaning and a Substantive Meaning

    Formal - Refers to Economics of Logics & Rationality in decision making

    Substantive - This Meaning Pre Supposes, Neither Rational Decision Making, Nor Conditions of Scarcity. It simply refers to study of how humans make a living from their social and natural environment.

    A Societies Livelihood Strategy, is seen as an adaptation to its climate, environment and material condition through a process which may or may not involve utility maximisation

    Polanyi’s great transformation refers to the divide between modern market dominated Societies (Particularly Western Societies) & Non Western Non Capitalist Pre Industrial Societies

    Non Western Non Capitalist Pre Industrial Societies → Here, Individual Choice is not so much based on maximisation of economic benefits but rather on social benefits, cultural values or religious sentiments

    Production in most of the Peasant Societies is for Producers, that is production for use as compared to production for exchange and profit in Industrial Capitalists Societies

    According to Polanyi’s in modern capitalist economies, the concepts of formalism and susbtantivism coincide. Since People Organise their Livelihoods based on the Principle of Rational Choices. However, in Non Industrial Non Capitalists Pre Industrial Economy

    This Assumption is not Valid

    Another Key Aspect of Substantivism is Embeddedness. Rather than being a Distinct and Separate Sphere, Economy is Embedded in Both Economic and Non Economic Institutions

    A Substantivist Analysis Focus on Economics being Profit Oriented and maximum utilisation of even the Scarce Resources

    Whereas Economic Anthropology, talks about Raw forms of Economic Organisations or Systems which are Targeting Fulfilment of needs. So the Core Principles of Economics cannot be directly extended to Economic Anthropology. Hence, must be studied in the Socio Cultural Context of Society, Tribe or Group.

  • Formalists Approach

    According to Formalists Economics is all about fulfilling the demands of humans, even with Limited or Scarce Resources. Economics need to allocate the Resources Efficiently

    The Formalists Approach, makes certain assumptions like Individual Prefer Utility Maximisation by Choosing some alternative means. Individuals will do so based on Rationality to measure the cost and reaching upto a well studied decision

    Formalists also consider that all individuals live under conditions of scarcity of means but with unlimited wants.

    Formalists like Herkovitz and Firth asserted that No Classical Model of Economics can be applied to any society in its actual form, it has to be moulded as per the society. Hence, either the society is simple small scale or capitalists

    Formalists said that “Maximising” in Economics is not always requiring money or market, even love affection and security can be maximised

    Formalists wanted to demystify non western economic behaviour that even in other societies, people are rational

    The Formalists approach preached that there is Reason and Rationality behind the behaviour of people which is the Governing Principle of Economics. Hence the Economic Theory is well applicable to all forms of societies in one or another way

• What is Included in Economic Organisation

  Acts Included are

  1. Production
  2. Consumption
  3. Sale
  4. Medium of Exchange

• What are the examples of Economic Organisation

  1. Kula Ring Exchange System - Studied by Malinowski
  2. Moka System of Exchange in Papua New Guinea
  3. Jajmani System of India
  4. Pigs & Sweet Potato Based Economic Organisation - Kapauku Papuans

• How is Economic Organisation Functional to Society ?

  1. Source of Balance based on Division of Labour
  2. Promotes Social Harmony & Social Stability
  3. Functional Society
  4. Sustenance
  5. Solidarity Cohesion

Traditional Economic Organisation

• Introduction by Hoebel and Weaver

  1. Economic Organisation are Behaviour and Actions targeted towards

     1. Production
     2. Allocation
     3. Distribution
     4. Consumption and Use

     For Production of Goods and Services

• Types of Societies where E/O is found

  1. No Matter what form of Society it is, like

     1. Simple / Complex

        in Family there is some defined division of labour and this economic organisation which starts from family itself

     2. Small Scale / Large

     3. Rural / Urban

     4. Savagers

        In Hunting Gathering Societies there is Communal Ownership of Resources

     5. Horticulturist

        Generally marked by Issuance of Patta, as a patch of Land

     6. Pastoral / Agriculturalists. Industrialists

  2. Maximum E/O is based on defined DOL. This DOL is based on Gender and Age

     Example: Savara Tribe of Andhra perform PODU → Shifting Cultivation

     Here Tasks are done by

     1. Adults

     2. Adolescent's

        Fetch Food, Water, Tools, Watch Over Something

     Not Part of Labour

     1. Kids < 10 Years of Age
     2. Old Age > 70 Years of Age

     Thus, this Savara Family Acts as a Unit of Production

  3. As Society Advances from Simple Small Scale → Complex Modern Industrial Society

     DOL - Changes

     Roles Reversed

     No Defined Task bound with a Gender

• Different Economic Activities

  • Hunting Gathering or Foraging
    • Introduction
      1. They Gather and Collect Food, Directly from Natural World
         1. Hunting
         2. Fishing
      2. May Be By Hunting of Animals or May be from Wild Plants
         1. Fruits
         2. Vegetables
         3. Tubers
         4. Leaves
         5. Roots
      3. Homo Sapiens in its Present from are having history of Nearly 1,00,000 Years
      4. Domestication of Animals started 10,000 - 12,000 Years Ago
      5. Hence in the Rest of 90,000 Years of Homo Sapiens we were dependent upon Hunting and Gathering
      6. Hence, in Nearly 90% of the Existential Years of Homo Sapiens we have depended upon hunting gathering form of activities
      7. As of Now, very less part of human population is exclusively dependent on Hunting Gathering
    • Examples
      1. Some Studies Suggest that Hardly 2,50,000 people are presently there who are in totality dependent upon hunting gathering found in
         1. dense evergreen forest
         2. Sub Polar / Arctic Region
         3. Hot Deserts
      2. Examples: India there are very less no of examples
         1. Indian Mainland - Chenchus of Andhra Pradesh
         2. Andaman Islanders
         3. South India - Some Parts of Qadars in South India
         4. Some Versions of Paniays, Todas, Irulas
      3. Examples: World
         1. Pygmies of Africa
         2. Kulin’s of Australia
         3. Andes of Siroccos
         4. Indo Malaysian Tribals
         5. Innuits Eskimos of Polar Regions of Alaska
    • Characteristics & Features of Hunting Gathering Society

      1. It is all most a compulsion that they have to adopt nomadic behaviour to collect food

         Some times due to seasonal movement there can be semi nomadism

         Hence, They have to move in search of Food & Water

      2. Except for the Hunter & Gatherers of Deserts, Rarely there is a Scarcity of Resource

      3. They Collect food only for Consumption, there is no element of trade, storage or surplus food. After that there is no disturbance to Nature

      4. They are very less in populations as well as population density

      5. They use the most primitive forms of Technology

      6. Hence, it can be safely concluded, They are Self Sufficient Population

      7. They have no concept of Property. There may be some rules specified by Society

  • Pastoralism
    • Introduction

      1. Pastorals are highly mobile as they follow their herds moving from one grazing area and water resource to another.

      2. According to Seasons or on Exhaustion of Local Food or Water Resources.

      3. They are not always sequential forms of Economic Activities

         There are evidences that when we started domesticating animals, at the same time we started cultivating plants as well

      4. Six Prominent Animals who are the most common forms of domestication

         1. Sheep
         2. Goat
         3. Cattle (Cow)
         4. Camels
         5. Donkeys
         6. Horses
    • Examples

      1. Found in Maximum Parts of the World

         Europe, NZ, Africa, Middle East, Siberia, Central Asia

      2. In India

         1. Bakarwals of Kashmir
         2. Bhutias of Uttarakhand
         3. Gaddis of Himachal
         4. Todas
         5. Maldharis (Semi Nomad Pastorals) of Kutch, Gujrat

      3. Apart than these, some other animals found in pastoralism are

         1. Yaks - Higher Reaches of Himalayas & Tibets
         2. Reindeers - Sub Polar Arctic
         3. llamas - Highlands of Andes Mountains

      4. In Examples

         1. Chukchee’s of Siberia
         2. Masai’s of Saharan Dessert
    • Features of Interaction with Animals

      1. There are less incidences of people killing these animals for consumption of meat

      2. They Generally use the animals for Milk and Milk Product, but milk and milk products are NOT available throughout the years

      3. Hence, they make ties and relations with others

         Generally with Agriculturists and very seldom with foragers

      4. The Mode of Exchange Found here is that of

         1. Pots
         2. Some Form of Manufactured or Handicraft Utensils

      5. To Support the Animals, they need fresh pastures and continuos supply of water. It is not available everywhere especially in the semi arid areas and mountain height

    • Characteristics of Pastoralism

      1. They are Nomads and Semi Nomads

      2. Once Settled, They have Sedentary Life Style

      3. They have Lesser Population & They have Less Population Density

      4. They Generally don’t have Land as their Property.

         They have animals as their property

      5. Storage & Surplus for providing animals with food emerged

      6. There is some form of Leadership, Existence of very basic form of Political Organisation

      7. They have permanent or Temporary Leaders

      8. They can have trade ties as well

  • Horticulture

    • Introduction

      1. Horticulture for the First time was discovered in Middle East, nearly 10,000 Years Ago by Women

      2. Horticulture is Fruits, Vegetables, Food which are consumed, Even small scale food grain production

      3. In Most Parts Horticulture was started by Tribes by using simple tool and techniques

         for Consumption, Storage and Trade, thus signifying concept of surplus

    • Examples

      1. Found in South Asia, Pacific Islands, Central Parts of Africa, Latin America can have extensive patches of Horticulture
      2. Food Produced are Tomato, Tans, Corps, Grains, Millets etc
      3. Example of Indian Tribes
         1. Gonds - Most Prominent Name for Horticulture
         2. Ao
         3. Naga
         4. Santhals
         5. Muriya
         6. Abor
         7. Miri
         8. Mishmi
      4. Examples of Tribes around the World
         1. Yano Mami’s of Brazil are Horticulturists

    • Features of Horticulture

      1. They have permanent settlement, they only leave the place when there is exhaustion of soil minerals, thus signifying shifting culture

         Hence, Shifting Culture can be considered as extension of Horticulture

      2. Population Density & Population practising it is moderate

      3. They use simpler technology and simpler techniques for their produce

      4. Here Division of Labour is marked prominently based on age, sex, specialisation or skill

      5. In Horticulture Societies, Children are the most employed ones

      6. Generally Private Ownership is not seen.

      7. There is a pattern of Communal Ownership with Rights to use patches of Land

    • Shifting Agriculture is NOT a Part of Horticulture

  • Settled Agriculture

    1. It is characterised by growing of crops on permanent patches of land

    2. Various Method and techniques like, Ploughing, Weeding, Sowing, Irrigation etc are used

    3. It is Intensive Economic Activity

    4. It is very labour intensive work

    5. Which in Turn paves way for High Population Density.

    6. There is Division of Labour

    7. Proofs of Settled Agriculture is seen from Neo Lithic Period at about 12,000 Years Old

    8. It is practised in entire Earth.

    9. We have complex tools and advance technologies being used

    10. Use of Irrigations and modern technologies is employed

    11. Land can be communally or individually owned

    12. Sometimes it can take shape of Shifting Cultivation as well. Hence, Even Settled Agriculture can bes shifting at some points.

        For Example, in Disaster Prone Areas, Excessive Rainfall Area

    13. Examples of Tribals in India Practising Agriculture are

        1. Bhils
        2. Baigas
        3. Lepcha
        4. Oraons
        5. Ho

Three Prominent Key Components of E/O

1. Production

• What is Production
  1. When Human Being use their
  2. Physical Force & Certain Technique
  3. Over Some Natural Resource or any other Matter
  4. To Get Some Outcome like Goods and Services
  5. For Consumption
• Types

  • Food Collection

    1. Done by Hunting Gathering Societies or for Foragers

    2. Like Fishing, Hunt Wild Animals, Fruits and Tubers, Honey

    3. Oldest Survival Strategy of Human Beings

    4. Example : Onges, Jaravas, Sentinel's, Innuits of Sub Arctic Region, Arunta Tribe of Ab Origins of Australia

    5. Even in present time, some hunting gathering can be found but with settled horticulture or agriculture

       Example: Rabhas of Assam

  • Food Production

    • Horticulture

      Simplest Method of Food Production USING Simple Tools and Techniques

      There is No Use of Fertilisers and No Irrigation

      It is Generally Performed, Not on a Fixed Land or Fixed Patch of Lands

      Example : Swiddening (Shifting Agriculture)

      There can be Domesticated Animals

      But Dependence of Domesticated Animals is is Less

    • Pastoralism

      But Dependence of Domesticated Animals is is More cuz they reside in

      Grassland and Semi Arid Belts

      Example: Maldharis of Banni Grassland of Kutch

      They Move Seasonally

      Nomadism is a Permanent from of Shifting.

      Example Is : Transhumance

      1. Bakarwals Tribe
      2. Gaddis Tribe
      3. Bhotia Tribes

    • Settled Agriculture ( Intensive)

      Even with Small Land Holdings, Maximum Production is Ensured by means of Irrigation, Fertilisers, Tools and Technique

2. Distribution & Exchange

• Distribution → Effort Towards Equality

  Distribution is when Some Portion of Total Production is given to Different Individual

  This is a one way Transaction which is generally characterised by One to Many Type of Transaction

  It is a Effort towards Equality

• Exchange → Effort Towards Stability

  Exchange is Specific Products (Goods or Services) given to each other

Types of Exchange

• Summary

  

• Reciprocity

  • Introduction to Reciprocity

    1. Objective

       To Create Social Solidarity, Social Relationships

       To maintain Social Relationships

       To Strengthen Relationships

    2. Here there is Back and Forth Movement of Products

  • Study on Reciprocity
    • Three Prominent Thinkers Here Are
      1. Marshal Mauss
      2. B Malinowski
      3. Marshal Sahlins
    • Marshal Sahlins Gave Classification of Reciprocity as

      • Generalised

        X → Y (X Not Expecting Anything in Return)

        There may be some reciprocation, but it is not excepted

        Value of Gift is Not Calculated and time of Re Payment is Not Specified

      • Balanced / Symmetrical

        • Introduction

          X → Y → X is giving something to Y & expecting a good & timely return. Sometimes place is also decided

          Whatever is Surplus to X may be given to Y

          Whatever is deficient to X may be supplied by Y

        • General Example: Indian Kanyadan

          General Example: in Concept of Kanyadaan, Relatives Help Brides Family through Kanyadaan

          Later when Relatives Daughter is getting married, they are expected to arrange items for Kanyadaan

        • Specific Example: Kula Ring System By Malinowski

          • Summary

            

          1. Studied at Massim Archipelago in Trobriand Islanders
          2. There are Two Entities

             1. Soulava - Moving in Clock Wise

                Red Shell Disc Necklace

             2. Mwali - Moving in Anticlockwise

                White Shell Armbands

        • Specific Example: Wasi System by Rapaport

          It is a Study based on New Guinea Study

          People on Shore Give Island Material to Mountain People

          Mountain People Give Horticulture Product to Island people

        • Specific Example: Maring System by Rapaport

          In the hilly areas of Papua New Guinea, Pig Feast is organised as a gesture of social gathering. It is a classical example of balanced reciprocity

          Here Mutual Exchange of Gifts Take Place, also political alliances are formed here.

        • Specific Example: Moka System by Marshal Sahlins

          in Mt Hagen Area of Papua New Guinea Area

          It is based on concept of Big Man → A Person who is aspiring for political power or dominance, they increase their gift (in the form of pigs) value

          Example:

          X → 2 2 Pigs

          Y → 3 3 Pigs

          Z → 4 4 Pigs

          ---

          It is based on Pig Economy and Big Man Concept studied by Martial Sahlins in Mt Hagen Area of Papua New Guinea

          Moka are Reciprocal Gifts of Pigs, Given to people to show the dominance or influence or political recognition by the big man

          The Value of Gift is Generally Increased in comparison to the Earlier Value

      • Negative / Asymmetrical

        1. One is trying to get benefit against the others, generally practised with strangers and enemies. Here one or the other person is at loss either directly or indirectly
        2. Generally at Place where Resources are Scarce
        3. Example: Novajo Americans
        4. Example : Silent Trade of Veddah of Sri Lanka

           • Image

             

• Redistribution

  • Defintion

    Production by Multiple Authority Saved with a Central Authority

  • Studies on Re Distribution - Potlach & Joint Family

    1. Theme is Central Authority
    2. It is arrangement between 2 or more members or groups

    • Image Depiction

      

    • Example: Potlatch by Chinook Indian of Rocky Mountain Area

      1. Its a Ceremony
      2. Practised by Rocky Mountains Area of Chinook Indians

    • **Example:**Traditional Indian Joint Family System

• Market

  Multiple Producers and Consumers with no set of fixed way of transaction, anyone can act as anyone

  It is based on exchange of money

3. Consumption & Utilisation

• Types

  Utilisation → Using - Cloth

  Consumption → Consuming Something - Food

• There is concept of

  1. Minimalism
  2. Consumerism

Paper 1 - Unit 4.0 - Political Organisation & Social Control

• What is Political Anthropology
  1. Those Organisations & Institutions’ and Mechanisms which are
     1. either well-defined or (formal)
     2. not well defined (not formal/informal)
  2. Characterised by
     1. Decision Making
     2. Conflict Resolution
     3. Hence, Creating & Imparting - Social → Law & Order
• Prominent Political Organisations

  1. Classification by Elman Service

     Uncentralised Political Organisation

     1. Bands
     2. Tribe

     Centralised Political Organisation

     1. Chiefdom
     2. States

  2. Whether Centralised or Decentralised, A Political Organisation talks about

     How Power, Law and Order, Rules and Regulations are Framed and Put into Use within a sociocultural environment

  3. These Political Organisations / Systems / or their Components are Related to

     1. They frame Law
     2. They constitute Political Formations
     3. Help in Conflict Resolution
     4. Help in Social Control Mechanism
• Features of Political Organisations
  1. Orderly Arrangement of Members
     1. Hierarchical Divisions
     2. Equality in the Organisation
     3. First Amongst the Equals
  2. There are Certain Set of Rules for Entry and Exit of Members
  3. Who Will Head the Next ? Perpetuity will be maintained
  4. Set of Rules, directions, for the members
  5. It’s an Autonomous Unit with INternal Regulation of its Members

Types of Political Organisation by Service

• Mind Map

  

• Uncentralised - Diffused Power & Authority - Pending from Lecture

  • Band Organisation

    • Introduction
      1. Mainly Associated with Hunting Gathering Societies
      2. Meaning it is associated with the Foragers
      3. Strength of Band may vary from 10,20,50,100 People
      4. They are related to each other by means of
         1. Familial Contact
         2. Same Tribal Groups
         3. Same Geography
      5. Because of Nomadic Lifestyle of Hunter Gatherers, Membership of Band is NOT Permanent, it is more of a flexible nature
      6. If one person has some serious disagreement with some members or the rules of the band. That one person can leave the band and join another band
      7. In Situations of threat he will choose a Band Leader which is situation based and Temporary
      8. Sometimes they Pick Eldest Members so that Experience based Advice can be taken
      9. Hence
         1. No Superiority or Inferiority
         2. No Social Organisation
         3. No Hierarchy
         4. It is concept of First Amongst the Equals
      10. Elman Service said that one or Another form of Band will be found in Maximum Societies
      11. Examples
          1. Tribal Groups of Andaman and Nicobar
          2. Chola Naikans of Kerala
          3. Kungs’ of Africa
          4. Kalahari of Africa
          5. Innuits of

    Types of Bands

    • Patrilocal
      • A kind of band exogamy, means there will continuous entry of new women after marriage. Wife will come in band of husband
      • This is the most common form of band organization
      • Occurrence of this form of band grp is almost inevitable to the society
      • Here the band is rejuvenated, replenish by marriage +alliance
    • Composite
      • If a grp is under war, diseases, disasters and is not following any sort of exogamy also ,thus this group will lose their typical character. the remaining members will form a cohesive unit. The members from other groups will come together and form composite band.
      • Band exogamy can take place after the disaster
    • Anomalous band
      • Found in societies with fragmented social structures . means as a unit family is there is ,there is no social organization .
      • No formation of social grp, family is a band.
      • Primarily found in eskimos with typical characteristic of fragmented social structure i.e typical socio cultural organizations are missing except family. Family is acting as a band or a unit of integration

  • Tribal Organisation

    • Introduction
      1. There is no Typical Organisation Seen in Tribal Organisation like No Leader, No Authority, No Hierarchical Division
      2. In Bands we talk about Foragers, In Tribal Organisation we talk about Pastorals and Horticulturists
      3. They Bind the Members together so that a particular tribal group can function as a Self Sufficient Group
    • Clan Based Organisation

      1. Within a Tribal Organisation there can be Multiple Number of Tribal Organisations

      2. Each Clan has its own seat of authority and power

      3. Example:

         Winnebago Red Indians - 12 Different Red Indians - We have Different Different Political Functions

         Out of these 12 we will choose a Tribal Chief & the Chief will be from the Thunderbird Clan

         Thunderbird Clans duty is to maintain Harmony, Social Order & Law Order

         1. Beat Clan - To Beat the People to get Rules Implemented
         2. Warrior Clan - Duty to fight from Outsiders
         3. Hunter Clan, Water Clan etc

      4. Clan based organisations have a defined division of labour

    • Lineage Based Organisation

      1. Very Rare form of Tribal Organisation

      2. Example

         1. Nuers of Sudan by Evans Pritchard → Pastorals
         2. Tivs of Burkina Faso Nigeria Regions → Horticulturists

      3. Segmentary Lineages are Formed - Society is divided in different Groups based on Lineages

         They have their own traditions but they do not have any defined law

      4. No Person to another person, no council to another person can reward a punishment

      5. Nuers are divided into different 6 groups based on lineages and these lineage they have certain rules but they do not have any defined law ,thus there is no defined punishment. No person can reward a punishment to another person no council can reward punishment to any person

      6. people will settle the dispute with the help of intermediator called as leopard skin. This intermediator do not have any defined law to resolve the dispute, he will resolve based on the situation w/o any biases in mind. Dispute are mostly settled on the tit for tat principle

      7. if the member of one lineage has killed member of another lineage the latter one has all the rights to kill the person who committed this act or any other group members. In this system it's an act not only for revenge but also to restore the balance if dispute becomes out of control leopard skin. Chief will act as an mediator again to stop the blood shaded. lineage based political organization can be found in oraons of eastern india and there lineage system is termed as Khunt

    • Age Based

      1. Examples Are

         1. most commonly found in oceania
         2. certain ab origins of USA of Hawaiian islands
         3. certain tribal groups of Africa

      2. Sample Case Study

         V1 → Village 1

         V2 → Village 2

         A1 → Age Grade 1,

         A2 → Age Grade 2

         (same age grp in two different villages) → will form grade organization - E1+E2

      3. Each age grade is an organized group of people with their membership decided by their age. People of the same age group irrespective of the kinship or territorial lines/village will belong to the same age grade /organization

      4. Every age group will have its functions/duties to be performed for eg- adults can be involved in lighter task and adults may be involved in wars

      5. Examples:

         1. Kipsigis of eastern grasslands of Africa
         2. has two different age groups based on age - warriors and senior elders

      6. Warriors: are involved in defenced and bagating many children,when warriors are not physically capable enough they pass into the age grade of senior elders involved in ceremonial activities ,resolution of disputes ,organising the people and army etc

      7. Masais of Sahara Desert also have this form of political organization, were the societies are divided into childhood, junior warrior hood, junior warrior hood, junior elderhood and senior elderhood

    • Association
      1. When people form associations based on common interest
      2. Example: People they form military clubs, hunting societies, peace seekers, violent club/revenge club
      3. Example: Cheyenne warrior club-> these are native american in great plains
      4. Cheyenne’s have divided there societies into 7 different military societies
         1. Boy have to prove he is a warrior ,he should be not at all varied by any threat ,the boy can enter into the warrior club
         2. All the 7 societies are involved in different functions.
         3. Even social functions, ceremonies, rituals are also done
    • Melanesian Big Man Based
      1. Context: Pigs, Horticulture, Polygamy, Bride Price
      2. Big man is self proclaimed leader based on economic resources and to maintain this leadership big man will start doing tribal welfare like-organizing pig feast,horticulture
      3. Big Man is called Tonowi → Due to ownership of economic resources he will have followers

• Centralised - Concentrated Power & Authority

  • Chiefdom / Kingdom

    1. Kind of Authority given to Individual / Group of Individual
    2. This can be Hereditary, Titles or Assumption of Some Office
    3. They are mainly found in groups with Larger Populations and Higher Populations Density
    4. There is a Demand of High Productivity
    5. There is a Demand of Control over the Resources
    6. Due to all these factors, a concept of centralised authority, this led to emergence of centralised leader
    7. Sometimes there are more than one leader, where they share the authority
    8. Hereditary Aspect of Chiefdom
       1. From Parents to Offspring, Social Rankings are Defined
       2. One Having Highest Social Ranking will be the Leader of the Group
    9. Along with Chiefs and Descendants of Chief there can be people working for chief, they are placed at a higher as compared to common man
    10. Hence we have
        1. Family of the Chief
        2. People working under or close to chief
        3. Families of common people
    11. Generally interconnection and intermarriages between commoners and (Chief family/Family of Worker) families is totally prohibited

    • Combination

      

    1. Here Chief will have Luxurious Life Style and More Resources

       He is expected to help when people are in need

    2. There can be pooling of resources and resources can come to chief

    3. Hence Production & Re Distribution is done by Chief

    4. Example

       Zulus of South Africa are on the Classical Example of Chiefdom

    5. When there is some situation of internal conflict there will be resolution by chief

    6. There can be Ascribed Status of Chief in the Chiefdom. Ascribed status is by means of Chief Dom

    7. There are certain Charismatic Leaders with Extraordinary Leadership skills who can also become chief

       Accumulation of Wealth can also lead to Attainment of Chiefdom

       Example: Iroquois of South Western US and Nearby Mexico

  • State

    1. Its a Political Organisation with

    2. Temporary Executives - Politicians

    3. Permanent Executives - Bureaucrats

    4. The Govt Structure can be

       1. Presidential form of Govt
       2. Parliamentary form of Govt
       3. Democratic Form of Govt
       4. Ceremonial Head from og Govt

    5. There is a Hierarchy of Centralised Control

    6. State defines the rights of citizens, state also defines responsibilities of citizens

    7. Even before that, State Defines who are its Citizens

    8. They Maintain forces to Handle Internal or External Conflicts

    9. States collect and maintain demographic data

    10. States have ownership of Resources

    11. State Ensures Re Distribution of Resources

    12. They Maintain Law and Order for Social Control

    13. Voluntaristic Theory of State Formation by Childe is of the Opinion that the Governments and State Authorities emerged because of Voluntary Surrender of Some Part of Autonomy and Ownership of Resources under control of state.

        So that, Redistribution of the Resources and Stability in the Social System can take place

• Important Trend Analysis

  • Summary

    

  • Table

    | Themes | Foraging Society | Horticulture Society | Pastoral Society | Agriculture | Industry | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Political Organisation | Band | 1. Band 2. Tribe | 1. Tribe + Chiefdom | Chiefdom and State | State | | Leadership | Band Leader (Generally Temp, Rarel Permanent) | 1. Head Man / Woman 2. Big Man / Big Woman | 1. Big Man / Big Woman 2. Chief | Paramount Chief | PM/President/ Emperor | | Social Conflicts | 1. Small Scale 2. Face to Face 3. Rarely Lethal | 1. Armed Conflicts 2. Lethal 2. Revenge Killing | 1. Full Fledged War 2. Generally Lethal | War | International War Ethnic Conflicts Weapon Based War | | Methods of Social Control | 1. Norms of Society 2. By Means of Social Pressure 3. by Means of Ostracism (Boycott) | 1. Norms of Society 2. By Means of Social Pressure 3. by Means of Ostracism (Boycott) 4. Religion | 1. Norms of Society 2. By Means of Social Pressure 3. by Means of Ostracism (Boycott) 4. Religion | Raw forms of Laws | Formal Control

    1. Law
    2. Judiciary 3.Imprisonment
    3. Capital Punishment

    Informal Control

    1. Religion Extra |

  • Trend Seen

    

    1. Increased Population Density
    2. Increased Social Inequality or Ranking
    3. Increased Internal & External Conflict
    4. Increased Power & Responsibility of Leaders

• Power Authority and Legitimacy

  • Introduction

    1. Power is Capability to do certain things as per wish and will
    2. Authority is moulding the power of others. Capable to direct people
    3. R A Dahl (Sociologist) → Legitimate Power is Authority
    4. Sheriff and Sheriff defined power as Relative Weight of Behaviour of Group Members
    5. Weber said that if you are able to do what you want irrespective of resistance
       1. Zero Sum View of Power by Max Weber: Total Power in Society is always constant
       2. Weber said this that the total amount of power in a society is always constant
       3. Meaning if someone gains power then it is Loss of Power for some other Society Members
       4. Sociologically authority in power are loosely differentiated and have been found to be overlapping most of the times

  • Power

    1. Power can be Legitimate or Illegitimate

    2. Legitimate Power on Exercise, Becomes Authority

    3. Legitimate Power can be by Customs and Traditions

    4. There are : Legal Power and Traditional Power

       1. Legal Powers - By State and Law → Later Becomes Legal and Rational Authority

       2. Traditional Powers - Religious Leaders

          Based on Charisma due to some peculiar quality or character of a Leader

    5. There are : Structural Power and Positional Power

       Structural Power

       Positional Power

  • Authority

    • Introduction
      1. Legitimised Power is Authority by R A Dahl
      2. Institutionalised Power is Authority
      3. Ability / Right to take decision for others to issue commands
      4. Its a Legal Rational Based on Rules, Procedures and Protocols
    • Types of Authority
      1. Traditional Authority - Due to Tradition
      2. Charismatic Authority - Due to Charisma of Leader
      3. Legal Rational Authority - Due to Law

  • Difference Between Power and Authority

    | Power | Authority | | --- | --- | | Can be Legal and Illegal | Is Always Legal | | It is to Regulate Self Wish | It is to Regulate Others Wish | | Not Necessary for Power | It is more democratic & Based on Rules | | Restricted to Simple Small Scale Societies | Can be for both Small Scale & Large Scale Societies | | Power is not Necessarily Hierarchical | Authority is Hierarchical |

  • Legitimacy

    1. Origin of Word Legitimacy is from Latin Word: Legitimas meaning Law Based
    2. Its a connection between Power and Authority
    3. Power will only become Authority, Only when there is Consent & this consent is only useful when the consent is Legitimacy
    4. Legitimacy is a kind of approved consent by a larger society which makes power a form of authority
    5. Legitimacy is a degree of right and wrong
    6. Legitimacy Makes De Facto Govt, a De Jure Govt
    7. According to Max Weber, Legitimacy Can be
       1. Traditional
       2. Charismatic
       3. Legality
    8. Estons Classification of Legitimacy. According to Eston, Legitimacy can be
       1. Ideological : Based on Ideology prevailing in society
       2. Structural : When You accept the Structure of Legitimacy
       3. Personal : Parallel to Charismatic Legitimacy of Weber, Based on Behaviour, Personality and Characteristics of Individual

• Social Control - Law & Order in Primitive & Modern Societies

  1. Social Control is Regulating / Handling and promoting an accepted social behaviour

  • It is done by means of

    1. Norms of Society
    2. Religious Beliefs
    3. Educational Knowledge
    4. Parenting
    5. Law

  • Aim of Social Control is

    1. Social Order can be Maintained
    2. Welfare of Society
    3. It is done by means of Social Suggestions and Perceptions

  • Methods of Social Control are Highly Variable for Different Societies

    1. Foragers, Horticultures & Pastorals

       1. Less Chances of Written Rules & Defined Law & Order is Generally Missing in

       2. Social Control Method is more of a Informal Methods based on Ideologies, Folklore, Mores, Customs/Beliefs

          Mores are characteristic customs or conventions of the society, generally acceptable to larger society

    2. Agricultures and Industrial Society

       1. Formal Means of Social Control like Civil, Criminal Law & Written Rules etc

    3. Modern Society

       1. Socialization by any means of Family, School, Social Institutions & Peer Group, these groups de facto inculcate social control
       2. With Socialisation, Social Control is Ipso Facto

  • Why Social Control is Needed

    1. Maintain Order / Balance / Harmony in Society
    2. To Maintain Old Order / Norms
    3. Social Solidarity Promotions
    4. Insider v/s Outsider Recognition
    5. Sanctity of a Particular
    6. To Check Socio Cultural Mal Adjustments

  • Methods of Social Control - Most Accepted way to classify social norms

    • E A Ross on Social Control

      1. gave the Description of Social Control Methods in Raw Form, Any Society Since Beginning of Humanity, uses one or another method of social control.
      2. It is is not necessary to have a Constitution but there can be Law, Customs, Religion, Moral & Ethics, Folkways, Mores, Public Opinion or Social Suggestion

    • Bernard on Social Control

      He Gave 2 Sets of Criteria

      • Summary

        

      1. Social Control can be based on

         Ideology can be in both

         1. Conscious Means - Education, Law, Public Opinion
         2. Unconscious Means - Conventions, Customs, Belief Systems

      2. He Proposed Two Means of Social Control

         1. Constructive → Asking For / Guiding Light → Education, Law, Public Opinion
         2. Exploitive (Destructive) → Coercing in / Forcing Into → Punishment, Fine, Intimidations, Warnings

    • Most Accepted Means of Social Control by Many Sociologists & Anthropologists

      • Informal Method
        1. With time, it emerged in society & people, they started accepting these
        2. Its Characteristics Are
           1. No Special Efforts is needed to reach upto these social control
           2. No Special Agency
           3. No Special Agreement
        3. Types of Informal Methods are
           1. Belief Systems
              1. Sin & Concept of Karma
              2. Examples of Azandes of Sudan & their Notions related to witchcraft
           2. Social Suggestions
              1. Behave Like Gandhi Ji
           3. Ideologies
              1. Fascist, Narcissist, Gandhian, Leninism
           4. Folkways and Mores
           5. Customs and Traditions
           6. Art & LIterature
           7. Comedy
      • Formal Method
        1. Law
           1. It Constitutes
              1. Most Important Method of Social Control
              2. Rules
              3. Legal Anthropology
           2. Anthropology
              1. Defines Legal Social Relationships
              2. Appropriate Behaviour in these Relationships
              3. Law decides Authority for Implementation of Rules, For Coercion
              4. It Makes Social Relationships Dynamic and Flexibility
              5. Law in Itself is Dynamic, Meaning Old Rules often change into New Rules
        2. Education
        3. Coercion and Prescribed Punishments

• Law and Justice in Primitive Societies

  • Defined by Malinowski

    1. Law is an
       1. Obligation for one person
       2. Rightful Claim on another person
    2. There's No Psychology and Belief but by a defines social machinery of force or coercion

  • Law in Band Clan Tribe

    No Defined Law → Band / Clan / Tribal Leaders used to define the Law → Legitimacy of Law was rooted through Kinship Bonds

    It was based on Public Opinion based on Morality and ethics

    There was no difference of Public or Private Wrongs. Cause of Other may affect the Group

    Fear of Sins guided the Ethics

    Focus was on Criminal Law and Not on Civil Laws

    Intentions are of No Use

  • Example of Eskimos

    If a Man Steals the Wife of a Man, then the Person who has stolen wife will have to listen to Songs sung by the person aggrieved

  • Concept of Social Sanctions by Radcliffe Brown

    1. Negative Sanctions - Forced to Do Something
    2. Positive Sanctions - Reversal of Negative Sanction

  • C Wright Mills further elaborated Concept of Social Sanction

    Sanction is a Kind of Externalised Social Control

    

• Resolution of Conflict

  

  

• Law & Customs

  • Definition of Law

    1. According to Malinowski Law is an obligation for one person and is the Claim of another Person
    2. It is not Based on Psychological or Emotional Motives or Aspects
    3. There is a Defined Social Machinery behind that
    4. Hence, Law is a Formal Method of Social Control.
    5. It acts as an Agency or Social Institutions

  • Definition of Customs

    1. It is long term established way of living.
    2. It is the Habits of People and Social Behavior
    3. It is based on Folkways and Mores

  • Difference Between Them

    | Law | Customs | | --- | --- | | Well Defined Norm | Not Well Defined | | Formulation, Enactment, Enforcement is by a Special Agency | No Special Agency is Required. They are Passed from One Generation to Another | | Specific or Unique to Some Aspects | It is not Specific, It is Generalised | | Framed on Intentional Basis, These are Deliberate Efforts to achieve some specific targets | It is a Kind of Group Process that Emerged Gradually & Unintentionally | | It is Dynamic in Nature It is Flexible It is Adaptive | Less Adjustable Less Flexible | | Special Effect or Law is Required to Abolish a Law | When Society is not Following Some Custom or Norm. It will gradually disappear | | They are generally codified in Single Book | They are NOT Codified in Single Book |

  • Similarities Between Them

    1. They are Supplementary and Complementary to Each Other

    2. Some Customs are followed Unconsciously without any Special Effort, When they serve a Function to Society, they are framed as Law

    3. Social Sentiments and Society Members Sentiments are kept in Consideration while framing Laws

    4. Sentiments, Customs and Norms are Guiding Lights Behind Law

       In the Same way Law Enforces the Customs

    5. Examples of Laws Based on Customs

       Example: Laws were Framed Against Sati

       Example: Laws were framed for Preservation of Milch Animal from Butchering

    6. They Both act as Method of Social Control

• Primitive & Modern Law

  • Difference Between them

    | Primitive Law | Modern Law | | --- | --- | | Simple Small Scale Societies | Complex Industrial Societies | | Not Well Defined | Well Defined | | Not Written | Maximum Times it is Written | | Slow and Gradual Onset | Result of Deliberate Planning | | Kinship Ties & Binds | Geographical or Territorial Jurisdiction | | Concept of Sins Talk About Supernatural Things | No Concept of Sins, More as a Concept of Crime or Deviance (Civil Disputes) | | Supernatural Punishments | Prescribed Punishments | | Predominantly Criminal Law No Concept of Civil Law | Both Criminal and Civil Law | | Based on Collective Conscience, Norms and Customs | Based on Rationality (Can be Shaped by Customs) | | Collective Responsibility | Individual Based Responsibility | | No Police No Court of Law | Policing System and Court of Law | | No Distinction Between Crimes in Public & Private Spheres

    Example: Smoking is a Sin | Distinction and Variance of Law Between Crimes in Public and Private Spheres Example: Smoking is ok in private, Smoking is a crime in Public |

  • Durkheim Talked ABout

    • Simple Small Scale Societies
      1. There Members Are Bound by Mechanical Solidarity
      2. Mechanical Solidarity → All Members are Almost Same
      3. Here Individual Consciousness it totally shaped by Collective Consciousness → What Society thinks, I think
      4. They Work as a Unit
      5. Here Mechanical Solidarity is Parallel to
         1. Repressive Law
         2. They Try to restore collective consciousness
    • Complex Industrial Society

      1. Bound by Organic Solidarity

      2. Here there is Defined Division of Labour (DOL)

      3. Every Person has his own type of Employment

      4. Here Organic Solidarity is Parallel to

         Law is not Repressive, it is mainly in the Form of Restitution → Leading Restitutive Law

         It doesn't target punishment but restoration of Social Order

         Durkheim Called Break Down of Social Order as Anomie