2.2 Ecological Anthropology

Unit 9.7 - Concepts & Methods of Ecological Anthropology

• Ecological Anthropology

  Ecology : is the interaction of living beings with other living beings with their physical environment

  Anthropology : is the study of man

  Ecological Anthropology : is about interaction of man with environment. Man reacts with environment through biological (adaptation, acclimatization etc) & cultural (houses ways of construction, fooding habits etc) means

  A sub field of anthropology which is the study of cultural adaptations to a specific environment i.e study of relationship between human populations and there bio physical environment

  Research of ecological anthropology is more concerned about how cultural believes and practices helped human populations to adapt to their environment. Also, how people used their elements of culture to maintain their ecosystems.

  Andrew Voyada and Rappaport incorporated principles of biological ecology into study of cultural ecology to make it a single science of ecological anthropology

  Man reacts with environment in 2 aspects

  1. biologically
  2. culturally

  Concept of cultural ecology emerged in anthro through the studies of Julien Stewards (neo evolutionist with an argument that culture does not exist as a separate sphere but involves reciprocal involvement with environment)

  

  In the concept of cultural ecology as explained by stewards some domains of cultural have strong and direct relationship with environment (Cultural core) and some have indirect relationship with env.

  Various facets of culture like habitations ,dressing and fooding habits are governed by environmental factors

  Example 1 : Bhungas are traditional houses in kuch region of Gujarat made up of special huski material (not allowing easy entry of heat)

  Example 2 : Traditional attire of populations in Arab region is mainly of lighter colors specially white to minimise the absorption of heat

  💡 Ecological Anthropology is clubbed with biological ecology and cultural ecology

• Acclimatization, Adaptability, and Adaptation

  • Summary

    | Concept | Definition | Nature | Timeframe | Examples | | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | | Acclimatization | Process of adjusting to a new environment | Temporary | Short-term, reversible | - Increased melanin production in response to sun exposure
    - Preference for specific foods in different climates
    - Extra red blood cells production at high altitudes | | Adaptability | Flexibility to adjust to the environment | Dynamic | Short to medium-term | - Cultural responses to food, clothing, and habitation
    - Physiological changes for better adjustment in climatic conditions | | Adaptation | Special changes in structure or mechanisms | Evolutionary | Long-term, irreversible | - More red blood cells and increased lung capacity at high altitudes
    - Homeotherms (endotherms) maintaining constant body temperature
    - Poikilotherms fluctuating body temperature with the environment |

  • Concepts

    • Introduction

      Acclimatization, Adaptability, and Adaptation are processes by which living beings, including humans, respond to specific environmental and climatic demands. They involve changes in structural, functional, physiological, and cultural characteristics to ensure better survival and evolution.

      Adaptability refers to the flexibility or adaptability of humans to their environment. It includes both biological and cultural components, and it leads to advancements in lifestyle, such as food habits, clothing, and habitation

      Ability to adapt to something, here Genetic Diversity plays a very Important Role.

      Example 1 : Grains

      Wheat : Cultivation in some parts of India only seen, Generally scarcity of wheat is seen

      Rice : Cultivated everywhere, due to better genetic diversity

      Example 2 : Humans

      1. Race & Population → having better genetic diversity → There are 4 Prominent Race : Mongolites, Caucasian, Indo Aryans & Dravidians, Negrotes
      2. Not good Adaptability → Inbreeding Depression → Reduced Genetic Bio Diversity

      Acclimatization is the process of getting accustomed to a new environment through biological or cultural changes. These changes are generally temporary and reversible.

      Adaptation, on the other hand, involves special changes in body structure (anatomical) or mechanisms (physiological) to fulfill specific demands of a particular condition. Adaptations are generally evolutionary changes that help species sustain and ensure survival, reproduction, and continuity in specific climatic conditions.

      Common Example

      1. Acclimitisation
         1. Cultural : Alcohol in Mountain
         2. Biological : Increased RBC
      2. Adpatation
         1. Cultural : White Color Less Dress
         2. Biological : High Altitude → High RBC, More Layer of Fat

    • Examples

      1. Acclimatization Example 1: Examples of acclimatization include increased melanin production in response to sun exposure in tropical regions and preference for specific foods in different climates

         When a British person comes to India, their body produces more melanin to protect the skin from strong tropical sunrays. This production decreases when they return to Britain

      2. Acclimatization Example 2: Cultural acclimatization can occur in different climates, where food choices may be influenced by cooling or heating effects on the body

      3. Acclimatization Example 3: Extra red blood cells are produced to counter altitude sickness. A Perosn living in a plain has in general less RBC as comapred to a person living in a hilly area

      4. Adaptation Example 1: People living in high-altitude areas have more red blood cells and increased lung capacity to efficiently supply oxygen

      5. Adaptation Example 2: Different temperature regulation strategies exist in organisms

         Thermoregulations : Hypothalamus Acts & Thermo Regulatory Centre

         | Adaptation Examples | Homeotherms (Endotherms) | Poikilotherms (Ectotherms) | | --- | --- | --- | | Definition | Organisms that maintain constant body temperature. | Organisms whose body temperature fluctuates with the environment. | | Nature | Warm-blooded, able to generate and retain body heat. | Cold-blooded, reliant on external sources for body heat. | | Examples | Mammals (e.g., Humans), Birds. | Fishes, Amphibians, Reptiles. | | Thermoregulation | Capable of thermoregulation (maintaining constant body temperature). | Unable to thermoregulate (body temperature fluctuates with the environment). |

    • Laws Governing These Changes

      1. Allen's Law: Describes the relationship between body shape and temperature tolerance. Longer extremities in hot areas dissipate more heat, while shorter extremities in cold areas retain more heat.
      2. Bergmann's Law: Relates body size and structure to temperature. Populations in cold areas tend to have larger body sizes for better heat tolerance, while those in hot areas have smaller sizes for less heat retention.
      3. Vasodilation: Expansion of blood vessels near the skin surface, which helps in heat dissipation.
      4. Vasoconstriction: Constriction of arteries, reducing heat loss.
      5. Human Glands: Apocrine and Eccrine glands are categories of sweat glands. Eccrine is the major sweat gland of the body, opening towards the skin surface, while apocrine glands open into hair follicles, armpits, pubic area, and head.

• Mans Physiological and Cultural Response to Heat

  • Introduction

    1. Like other mammals humans are homeotherms, maintaining a constant internal body temperature through the thermoregulation regulated by hypothalamus

    2. Extreme hot weather and heat waves can cause death of the individuals as body cannot retain larger heat for longer periods

    3. In 2003 around 35 to 50 K people die in heat waves in Europe as the individuals were suddenly exposed to heat and death happened due to multiple organ failure

       Example : Heat Waves is 2019/20 Andhra Telangana heat waves leading to death of more than 50 people

       Example : In hot deserts and other hotter areas heat stress can be handle at biological or cultural levels

       Biological → Can be physiological, genetic or anatomical adaptations to handle the heat stress

       A body experiencing heat stress, attempt to get rid of internal (produced by body mechanism) and external (through outside air temperature) derived heat sources

  • Biological/Physiological Adaptations to Heat

    • Genetic Adaptations as per Allens Law and Bourgmans Law

      i.e larger extremities to maximise heat loss form the body

      Example 1 : Pigmies of Kalahari and Jarawa’s of Andaman’s and Aborigins of South East Asia i.e relatively smaller body size and less weight to reduce the metabolic rate

    • Genetic Adaptations as per Vasodilations

      Expansion of blood vessel near the surface of the body to release maximum heat

      Example : The red face of person in hot environment Is visible

    • Genetic Adaptations as per Sweating

      Thermo Regulatory Center - i.e hypothalamus triggers sweating in humans which is one of the most imp response of the body for thermos regulation mainly by Eccrine Glands

    • Genetic Adaptation as per Body Hair

      Sweating is less effective in areas of body having dense hair as compared to areas having little or no hair. During the course of human evolution, the body hair witnessed a general loss.

    • Genetic Adaptation as per Gender

      Over all women are less able to tolerate heat than men due to presence of greater body fat and hence reduced the ability of efficient vasodilation

  • Cultural Adaptations to Heat

    • Introduction

      It pertains to creation and maintainace of favourable env. Conditions very near to the individuals and populations through the elements of material culture like habitation, clothing ,fooding etc to avoid the heat stress

    • Habitation

      people adopt special housing structure to minimise the impact of heat and hot winds like

      1. Like Bhungas construction of GJ are covered by special husky material which is not allowing the entry of heat inside the house
      2. In some parts of north and north western India a buddy or clay covering is pasted over the walls of habitations particularly with kutcha houses to provide heat resistancE
      3. Pueblo Indians (south western USA+Mexico) and some middle east communist constructed their houses serval meters below the ground to avoid direct exposure to hot winds and sunrise and also the sub soil temperature is much comfortable than that of surface soil
      4. In tropical areas people prefer to stay within or near forest or besides the water bodies to witness the cooling impacts
      5. In hotter areas houses are generally constructed with insulating materials having high heat resistance such as slat stones and adobe stones like in parts of RJ

    • Clothing

      1. Light coloured clothing for maximum reflection of the radiation and minimum expansion of heat

         Example : arbas in northern Africa and west Asia

      2. Fully covered body surface to avoid minimum exposure to hot winds and sun raises even the head areas like use of turbans and traditional caps in western part of India and Arabic world

      3. Chhamb arabs are tribal grps of sahara were people adopt the layering of clothing to minimise the conduction of heat upto the skin surface as the layers will act as insulating chambers

    • Food

      1. Certain fooding habits like dependence on fruits and hydrating food resources to minimise the water imbalance in the body
      2. also dependence upon animal products with minimum fact content so that body metabolism can be regulated

    • Conclusion

      biocultural adaptations in extreme climatic conditions like the hot areas are supplementing and complementing each other’s responses to ensure survival, reproduction and maintain ace of populations in these extreme climatic conditions

• Mans Physiological and Cultural Response to Cold

  • Introduction

    1. Severe cold stress is experienced mainly in
       1. polar and subpolar areas i.e high latitudes like arctic region
       2. in hilly areas with permanent habitations at an altitude above 10k feet or 3500 meters
       3. in temperate areas during colder seasons
    2. Exposure to very low temperature and cold winds can cause hypothermia low body temperature and is the biggest challenge in these conditions
    3. Permanent habitations in these conditions can be found in
       1. wrt Latitude : Alaska , Northern Canada, Scandinavia
       2. wrt Altitude : Siberia, Himalaya, Alps, Peruvian Andes, Tibetan
    4. Note
       1. Arctic (polar) - high latitudes
       2. Sub-polar - high latitudes
       3. High altitude - of high more than 10 K feet (nearly 350 mm)

  • Biological/Physiological Adaptations to Cold

    1. Vaso Constriction

       It is one of the first response of the human body against the cold stress i.e decreasing the diameter of blood vessels to reduce the blood flow towards the body surface

    2. Shivering

       It is the chief mechanism to produce heat in the body

    3. High Basal Metabolic Rate

       1. to generate more heat in the body
       2. it is amount of calories/energy required by the body to accomplish its most basic functions to sustain life like breathing, circulation of blood etc

    4. Allen’s law

       smaller extremities to retain the heat

    5. Bergman’s law

       bulkier body size with extra fatty deposits

    Example : Inuites, Eskimos are classical example of following Allen’s Law & Bourgmans Law. They have one of the highest BMR

  • Cultural Adaptations to Cold

    These are ways of handling the cold stress through special habitations, dietary pattern, fooding habits and also through various practices and rituals

    1. Igloos (Ice/Snow Built Houses)

       1. eskimos and people in polar areas construct ice and snow houses as ice is a thermo insulating material. it will not allow the easy entry of clod winds.
       2. they put a place of source of heat usually an oil or coal based lamp at lower level of multistorey.
       3. so that warm air will rise to upper level where people live ; maintaining an internal temperature of 10 to 20 degree Celsius despite of sub-zero temperature outside

    2. Thermo Insulating Clothing

       1. made up of cold resistance material like
          1. fur of Caribo Rain Deer in Alaska and arctic regions
          2. pashmina or angora wool in high reaches of Himalaya

    3. Use of Kangri

       by Kashmiris to provide warmth to the body

    4. Bushman or Kalahari

       1. They are exposed to moderate chronic cold stress during nights so they
          1. Sleep in the groups of 4/5 within the families
          2. Group of same gender outside the families
       2. They use clothing during night and remain naked at day time

    5. Tibetan Populations

       1. handles the stress of cold through Higher BMR achieved through general adaptions
       2. Dietary habits including high animal fats rituals of dances to generate heat in the body or sleeping naked around the camp fire to improve the retention of heat in the body are some other cultural responses to handle the cold stress

• Mans Physiological and Cultural Response to Altitude

  • Introduction

    1. Himalayan belt > more than 15K feet
    2. Peruvian Andes > permanent habitations above 19K feet
    3. Tibetan Highlands > more than 15K feet
    4. Alps in Europe

  • Challenges in these Areas

    1. Rough and difficult terrain, which leads to skeleton changes
    2. Biggest challenge : very low temperatures and cold & dry winds
    3. Handling Hypoxia - Less Availability of O2

       1. Occurs due to low concentration of gases so as to improve O2 supply in body

       2. improved efficiency to transport and utilize O2 must be achieved through bio cultural adaptations mainly through biological adaptations

       3. Biological Adaptations May Include

          1. Circumference of Chest Cavity
          2. Lung Capacity
          3. Chest Cavity Broader
          4. RBC production high
          5. Heart Rate High
          6. Capture O2 More - Breathing Rate High
          7. Save O2 More - Increased Iron Rich Supplement in Blood

          Primary Biological adaptations are primary adjustments to handle the low o2 stress

  • Biological / Physiological Adaptation to Altitude

    1. Greater Heart and Lung capacity like in the native Tibetans

    2. More RBCs in the blood to efficiently supply the available o2 to different body parts

    3. Higher Lung Capacity :

       Spitians in himachal and Bods in Ladakh have larger chest size in relation to their body stature as a developmental adaptation to accommodate better lung capacity

    4. Larger chest circumference in highlander as compare to low land populations to increase the lung capacity

    

  • Cultural Adaptation to Altitude

    Certain cultural practises like traditional India medicine like Sova Rigpa uses certain meditation techniques to improve the lung capacity and efficient utilization of o2